For many people the correct spelling of words in the English language poses a considerable challenge, and few would claim perfect understanding of the various rules involved and the seemingly countless exceptions to them. Some justify inaccurate spelling by pointing out that the general meaning is usually still communicated, but this assumption is risky because even minor errors in some circumstances can lead to significant changes in meaning. In some cases, furthermore, misspellings may be interpreted as a reflection of a writer's carelessness or even ignorance and work against success in, for instance, job applications.The problem stems chiefly from the historical fact that English spelling developed on the basis of etymologies (that is, the origins of words) as much as it did upon the phonetic qualities of words (that is, how they actually sound to the ear). In this, English differs from many other major languages, in which spellings are often largely phonetic. As a result of this process the way a word in English looks does not necessarily echo the way it sounds, just as the way it sounds is not necessarily obvious from the way it is spelled.A single letter of the alphabet in English may represent more than one sound, or even no sound at all (as, for instance, is the case with the b in subtle or the p in psychic). Conversely, a single sound may be represented by not just one but by several different letters or by particular combinations of letters (as, for instance, is the case with the sound oo, which may be written as oo, ou, ue, or ew, among other ways). One tip here, though not an infallible one by any means, is that if a vowel sound is short, it is more likely to be represented by a single letter (step, tap, whip) than by multiple letters. Note, however, the role of the diphthong (that is, the addition of an upward gliding y sound to the sound of a vowel) in transforming what may look like a short sound into a longer one (as in make, fight, lout, boat, boy). The situation has been further complicated over the centuries through the absorption of numerous foreign words, whose different cultural origins are reflected in their spelling, and through long-term shifts in pronunciation.In reality, however, the rules governing spelling in the English language are not quite so wayward and illogical as they may first appear, and there are general conventions that can provide guidance. Most people are taught to read as children either by sounding letters or by looking for recognizable visual patterns within unfamiliar words, methods that rely upon the fundamental truth that similar-looking arrangements of letters within different words are likely to sound the same and perhaps even be linked in meaning. Thinking of longer words in terms of their subsidiary parts (prefix, root, and suffix) may be helpful.One way to learn how to spell a word is to "look, cover, write, check" (that is, look at the word, cover it up, write it down from memory, and then check to see if this new word matches the covered one). Another safeguard when uncertain how a word should be spelled is to write down the possible alternatives: In most cases the correct version will reveal itself simply by "feeling right." When these methods fail, the simplest solution is to look up the word in a dictionary.Spelling Rules-able/-ibleThe rule governing words ending with the suffixes -able and -ible dictates that words that have been borrowed from Latin generally take the suffix -ible, whereas -able is applied to all other words (and is much the most frequently encountered). This rule is of limited value, though, since it depends on a knowledge of the etymology of a given word. The best alternative way to choose a suffix is to see whether removal of the suffix would leave a complete word: If that is the case, then the correct suffix to use is probably -able. Note, however, that there are a number of words that do not obey this rule (for instance, formidable, probable, accessible). The final letters of a word before the suffix may provide another clue: If the word ends with a soft c or soft g or with the letters ns, ss, ct, pt, or st, then it is likely that -ible will be the correct form (invincible, illegible, responsible, impossible, indestructible, susceptible, combustible), although, again, there are exceptions (intractable, unacceptable).If the above tests fail, the only solution is to familiarize yourself with the most common examples of both forms. Note that new coinages of this kind always take the suffix -able; no new words ending in -ible are being created. The following lists include examples of commonly encountered words ending in -able or -ible.-able| acceptable | employable | malleable | unfashionable | | adaptable | enjoyable | marriageable | unforgivable | | | admirable | estimable | memorable | unmissable | | | affable | expandable | obtainable | unobtainable | | | affordable | expendable | palpable | unreasonable | | | agreeable | fashionable | peaceable | unrespectable | | | amenable | flammable | perishable | unshockable | | | amiable | formidable | pitiable | unsinkable | | | bearable | hospitable | probable | untouchable | | | breakable | implacable | readable | untraceable | | | capable | inevitable | reasonable | unworkable | | | comfortable | intolerable | respectable | variable | | | comparable | invariable | separable | viable | | | contactable | invulnerable | tolerable | vulnerable | | dependable | irritable | unacceptable | washable | | | despicable | laughable | unflappable | watchable | | | detestable | likable (or | unbearable | workable | | disagreeable | likeable | unbreakable) | | durable | lockable | uncomfortable |
-ible| accessible | feasible | indivisible | perceptible | | admissible | flexible | inedible | permissible | | | audible | forcible | inexhaustible | plausible | | collapsible | gullible | infallible | possible | | | collectible | horrible | inflexible | reducible | | | combustible | illegible | insensible | reprehensible | | compatible | implausible | intangible | responsible | | | comprehensible | impossible | intelligible | reversible | | contemptible | inaccessible | invincible | sensible | | credible | inaudible | invisible | susceptible | | | deducible | incomprehensi- | illegible | suggestible | | defensible | ble | indestructible | tangible | | destructible | incontrovert- | irascible | terrible | | digestible | ible | irresistible | unintelligible | | divisible | incorrigible | irresponsible | unsusceptible | | edible | incredible | irreversible | visible | | eligible | indefensible | legible | | | expressible | indelible | negligible | | | fallible | indestructible | ostensible |
-ar/-er/-orIt is easy to confuse these word endings, particularly since speakers often pronounce them in an identical fashion. The general rule is that the suffix -er (or simply -r) is the most likely ending used in the sense of "person who does this," but there are a limited number of exceptions where -or is the correct form and an even smaller number where -ar is appropriate. The following lists include examples of commonly encountered words ending in -ar, -er, or -or.-ar| beggar | friar | scholar | | burglar | liar |
-er| builder | farmer | leader | producer | | dancer | fighter | lover | rider | | designer | gunner | maker | ruler | | driver | hunter | manufacturer | teacher | | employer | keeper | miner | thinker | | explorer | laborer | painter | worker |
-or| actor | director | janitor | supervisor | | author | distributor | persecutor | surveyor | | aviator | governor | prosecutor | survivor | | conductor | inheritor | prospector | tailor | | contractor | inspector | reflector | visitor | | contributor | inventor | resistor | | defector | investor | sailor |
-ed/-ingConfusion can sometimes arise over the addition of the verb endings -ed and -ing, which can have varying effects upon the verb stem. In most cases the addition of such suffixes requires no change to the stem itself (blinked, blinking; talked, talking). There are exceptions, however, in which the stem may be altered. In the case of words that end in a consonant plus -y, the -y is dropped and the suffix -ed becomes -ied, while in certain words that end with a vowel plus -y, the usual rule of adding -ed is similarly dropped in favor of -id. The following list gives examples of such exceptions:| cry | crying | cried | | fry | frying | fried | | lay | laying | laid | | pay | paying | paid | | say | saying | said | | spy | spying | spied | | try | trying | tried |
-ei-/-ie-The letter combinations of -ei- and -ie- often express the same ee sound and are easily confused. In order to tell them apart most people rely on the time-honored rule "i before e except after c," and this advice is generally effective. Note, however, that a more complete rule is "i before e except after c, when the sound is long ee."For examples of words that obey this well-known rule and of some of the few exceptions to it see below. Note particularly that the rule does not apply in words where -ei- represents the sound ay.Examples| achieve | deceit | piece | sieve | | belief | deceive | receipt | thief | | brief | diesel | receive | wield | | ceiling | field | relieve | yield | | chief | grief | shield | | conceit | niece | shriek | | conceive | perceive | siege |
Exceptions| ageism | Fahrenheit | neither | sovereign | | beige | fancies | policies | species | | caffeine | feign | protein | veil | | codeine | foreign | reign | vein | | counterfeit | freight | rein | weigh | | deign | inveigle | seize | weight | | eight | neigh | skein | weir | | either | neighbor | sleigh | weird |
-er/-estThe addition of -er and -est suffixes to adjectives to create comparative and superlative forms does not usually necessitate any change in the stem word (large, larger, largest; small, smaller, smallest), but there are occasions when a change is required.In the case of words that end in a silent -e, this last letter is dropped when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added (pale, paler, palest). When a word ends with a consonant followed by -y, the final -y is replaced by -i before the suffix (cheery, cheerier, cheeriest). One-syllable words with a short vowel sound and ending in a single consonant have the final consonant doubled before the suffix (glad, gladder, gladdest). -es/-sThe suffix -s is usually added in order to make a noun plural or to alter the present tense of verbs in the third person singular (he, she, or it). In cases where words end in -ch, -s, -sh, -x, or -z, however, -es is the appropriate form. See the lists below for examples.-es| boxes | catches | lashes | pitches | | blushes | chintzes | masses | sexes | | bushes | foxes | matches | taxes |
-s| aims | fires | joints | ropes | | caps | hills | lawns | snakes | | dogs | horses | pillars |
-fs/-vesMost nouns are made plural by the simple addition of an -s ending, but there are exceptions. The general rule is that plurals of nouns that end in a single letter f take the form -ves, although again there are exceptions to this.-fs| beliefs | chiefs | griefs | proofs | | briefs | dwarfs | gulfs | roofs |
-ves| calves | loaves | sheaves | thieves | | halves | ourselves | shelves | wives | | leaves | scarves | themselves | wolves |
-ies/-ysNouns that end with -y are sometimes made plural by the simple addition of an -s, while others take the ending -ies. The rule is that the -ys ending applies where the word ends with a vowel plus -y, while the -ies ending is applied where the word ends with a consonant before the final -y.-ies| armies | fancies | lilies | sundries | | babies | flies | pennies | | charities | homilies | skies | | families | huskies | spies |
-ys| bays | holidays | rays | ways | | boys | journeys | toys | | days | pathways | trays |
-ily/-lyMost words of one syllable that end in -y simply have -ly added in their adverbial form (coy, coyly), but there are a few exceptions to this rule in which the stem word is transformed (day, daily; dry, drily). In the case of words with more than one syllable that end in -y, the correct procedure is to replace the -y with -ily (happy, happily; merry, merrily; unsteady, unsteadily).-lly/-lyThe general rule is that if an adjective ends in -l, then its adverbial form will take an -lly ending (occasional, occasionally; playful, playfully). Note, however, that if an adjective ends in -ll, the adverbial form is also spelled -lly, not with a triple l (dull, dully).-nes/-nnesThe creation of new nouns by the addition of the suffix -nes to an existing word can sometimes lead to confusion about the correct spelling. The rule is that if the existing word already ends with -n, the new word ending should be spelled -nnes (meanness, thinness).-oes/-osMost nouns ending in -o take an -s in the plural. There are, however, a number of exceptions to this rule that take the ending -es. Note that in a number of cases both ending are considered correct (for instance, cargoes and cargos or volcanoes and volcanos). Words ending in o that are shortened versions of longer words always take an -s ending (photos). The third person singular of the present tense of most verbs ending in a consonant and -o is formed by adding -es (goes, vetoes).-oes| buffaloes | grottoes | mangoes | tomatoes | | dominoes | haloes | mottoes | tornadoes | | echoes | heroes | potatoes | torpedoes |
-os| cameos | folios | radios | silos | | chinos | pianos | rhinos | studios |
Words Ending in -eThe general rule is that when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a word that ends in -e, this final letter is dropped (debate, debatable; monotone, monotonous; stare, staring, stared). There are a few exceptions to the basic rule where dropping the -e might lead to confusion with other superficially similar but otherwise unrelated words (as in singe, singeing, as distinct from sing, singing). The final -e is also retained in the case of words ending with a soft c or g sound where the suffix begins with a or o (changeable, peaceable, unmanageable). Note that in a number of cases alternative spellings of the same word with and without the final -e before the suffix are considered acceptable (likable, likeable; unsalable, unsaleable).Where an adjective ends with a consonant followed by -le, the adverbial form is created by replacing the final -e with -y (horrible, horribly; subtle, subtly). The final -e is usually retained in the case of suffixes beginning with a consonant, although there are rare exceptions to this rule (truly; wholly).Words Ending in -yMost words that end with a consonant plus -y have the y replaced by i when a suffix is tacked on (beauty, beautiful; happy, happiness; marry, marriage). There are a small number of exceptions to this rule, however, in which the -y is either retained or replaced by e (shyly, slyly, beauteous, piteous). Words that end with a vowel plus -y usually retain the -y when combined with a suffix beginning with a vowel (annoyance, joyous).Doubling of ConsonantsThe doubling of consonants within words is the root cause of many spelling problems. There is no single rule that governs such doubling, but there are underlying guiding principles. Words that end with a single consonant have that consonant doubled when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel (thin, thinner, thinnest; whip, whipping, whipped). Another guideline is that the final consonant of a word is doubled when the addition of a suffix turns it into a word of a different class (dig, digger; stop, stoppable). Note also that the final consonant is often doubled with the addition of the suffix -y (grit, gritty; sun, sunny).In the case of words with more than one syllable, the rule is that the final consonant doubles when the stress falls on the last syllable (forget, forgetting; commit, committed; repel, repellent) but not when the stress falls elsewhere (bias, biased; carpet, carpeted; envelop, enveloped; unparalleled).The number of words with doubled consonants is far too large to make learning each one individually a realistic prospect. Perhaps the best approach is to think of such words as belonging to one of three categories of words, namely those with no double consonants, those with one pair of double consonants, and those with two (or more) pairs of double consonants. The following lists include examples of words with one pair and with two or more pairs of double consonants.Words with One Pair of Double Consonants| abbreviation | baffle | dissatisfied | lattice | | aberration | barrel | dissemble | lullaby | | abyss | barricade | discuss | massacre | | accede | beginning | exaggerate | medallion | | accelerate | biennial | exceed | millionaire | | accident | blubber | excellent | mutter | | accomplish | brilliant | excess | necessary | | account | cattle | garrulous | occasional | | accurate | cherry | gorilla | occult | | addendum | collapse | happening | occur | | addition | collect | harass | paraffin | | affect | college | illustrate | parallel | | allergy | commemorate | immediate | passion | | ammonia | commit | immigrate | predecessor | | aggrieved | consummation | imminent | proceed | | appropriate | corridor | immobile | procession | | approval | current | immoral | professional | | approximate | desiccated | kennel | proffer | | arrest | disappear | kittenish | purring | | assist | disappoint | lasso | quarrel | | questionnaire | sheriff | terrible | vaccinate | | resurrect | slippery | terror | vacillate | | rosette | sufficient | tomorrow | | satellite | summer | trigger | | scissors | syllable | tyranny |
Words with Two or More Pairs of Double Consonants| abbess | address | committed | millennium | | access | addressee | crossbreed | oppress | | accessory | assassin | embarrass | possession | | accommo- | assessment | guerrilla | succeed | | dation | cassette | happiness | unnecessary | | accidentally | commission | mattress |
Commonly Misspelled WordsThe following list includes some of the more commonly misspelled words.| aberration | assassinate | conceive | exhilarate | | abbreviation | assessment | conscience | exorbitant | | abysmal | assimilate | conscientious | extrovert | | accelerate | authoritative | conscious | exuberant | | | accessory | autumn | consensus | fascinate | | | accommodate | bankruptcy | corollary | fatigue | | accommoda- | beautiful | corroborate | February | | | tion | beginner | credibility | fluorescent | | | achieve | beginning | curriculum | foreign | | achievement | besiege | deceive | foreigner | | | acoustics | billionaire | definitely | forfeit | | acquaint | bourgeois | desiccated | forty | | acquiesce | buoyant | desperate | four | | acrylic | bureaucracy | detach | fourth | | address | caffeine | dialogue | friend | | adjourn | calendar | diarrhea | gauge | | admissible | Caribbean | diphtheria | grammar | | adolescent | ceiling | diphthong | granddaughter | | | advantageous | census | disappear | guarantee | | | aggravate | chief | disappoint | guard | | ancillary | colossal | discipline | guerrilla | | | annihilate | colleague | ecstasy | harass | | anoint | commemorate | eighth | harassed | | | anonymous | commiserate | embarrass | harassment | | | Antarctic | commissionaire | embarrassed | height | | | appalling | commitment | embarrassment | heinous | | Arctic | committee | exaggerate | hemorrhage | | | asphalt | concede | exceed | heterogeneous | | | asphyxiate | conceit | excite | honorary | | | hygiene | minuscule | preceding | separate | | | hypocrisy | miscellaneous | preparation | sergeant | | idiosyncrasy | mischievous | privilege | sheriff | | illegible | Mississippi | proceed | siege | | | impeccable | misspell | pronunciation | skillful | | | inconceivable | mnemonic | psychiatry | subterranean | | indefinitely | mortgage | pursue | success | | independent | necessarily | questionnaire | successful | | indispensable | necessary | queue | suddenness | | innocuous | niece | receipt | supersede | | | | inoculation | noticeable | receive | tariff | | | inseparable | occasionally | recommend | temporarily | | intercede | occurrence | reconnaissance | temporary | | itinerary | omission | relevant | threshold | | | | jeopardize | omit | relieve | traveler | | | | legacy | omitted | remembrance | truly | | | | | liaise | oscillate | reminiscent | unnecessary | | | | | liaison | parallel | rendezvous | unwieldy | | | | | lieutenant | paralleled | repertoire | vaccination | | liquefy | parliament | resistant | vacuum | | | | | loose | peccadillo | responsible | variegated | | | | | lose | perceive | restaurant | veterinary | | | | | maintenance | perennial | resuscitate | Wednesday | | maneuver | perseverance | rhyme | weight | | | martyr | personnel | rhythm | weird | | | | | Massachusetts | playwright | Romania | whether | | medicine | pneumatic | sacrilege | wholly | | | Mediterranean | Portuguese | sacrilegious | withhold | | millennium | possess | schizophrenia | | | millionaire | practitioner | secretary | | miniature | precede | seize | |
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