A noun is a word that variously denotes a thing, person, place, quality, state, action, or concept (for example, man, house, idea, piece, speed, color). It serves as the subject of a verb and can be singular or plural. Plural forms are usually distinguished by the addition of a final s (beds, lions, trees), although other plural forms are commonly encountered (life/lives, marsh/marshes, mouse/mice, phenomenon/phenomena, woman/women). Nouns can be replaced by pronouns, such as it or they.Types of NounsThere are several different types of nouns. Once the characteristics of the different types of noun are learned, it is relatively easy to distinguish between them. Details of the different types are given below.Proper NounsProper nouns (also called proper names) refer to specific people, places, and things and begin with a capital letter. They include personal names (Henry, Simone); place-names (America, Himalayas, Oslo, Pacific, Sahara, White House); formal titles (Sergeant, Reverend); titles of literary, artistic, or other works (the Bible, Great Expectations, Bill of Rights); forms of address (Dr., Mrs.); languages (English, Mandarin); organizations and institutions (New York Times, Red Cross, Roman Catholic Church); events and festivals (Superbowl, Easter); and months and days of the week (January, Monday). In contrast to common nouns (see below), proper nouns are rarely encountered as plurals, although there are occasions in which they may be employed in such a fashion (Thanksgivings of the past, a gift for both Alices). They are not usually introduced by an indefinite article such as a or the, although there are exceptions:That car is a Ford.
This was not the Paris of her dreams. Some proper nouns, such as place-names, may be considered concrete nouns, while others, such as days of the week, are considered abstract nouns.Common NounsCommon nouns include all nouns that are not otherwise classified as proper nouns (for example, ambition, duck, lasso, pencil, weakness). They do not usually begin with a capital letter and are usually preceded by an indefinite article such as a or the. Note that some common nouns (such as state in an affair of state) may also be categorized as proper names, depending upon the context (as in State Department).Countable NounsCountable nouns are nouns that can be counted and thus have a plural form (fox/foxes, ocean/oceans, wasp/wasps). Countable nouns are always prefaced in the singular (and often in the plural) by indefinite articles such as a or the or by such possessives as my or our (a hole, the restaurant, my brother, our holiday), except where they operate like uncountable nouns in such phrases as at school (see below).Uncountable NounsUncountable nouns are nouns that represent something that cannot be counted (dampness, frustration, steam, wastage, water). They are thus not generally referred to in the plural. Most abstract nouns may be categorized as uncountable. They are not normally prefaced by an indefinite article such as a or the, but occasionally take one, as shown below with mess and understanding:A mess of pottage.
A basic understanding of Greek. Note that some nouns can qualify as both countable and uncountable nouns according to the way in which they are employed (a glowing light/in failing light, a third time/time past, a low-fat food, buy some food). Other nouns that are uncountable by themselves may become countable when made part of a countable noun phrase (a moment of inspiration, a pair of scissors, a piece of news).Concrete NounsConcrete nouns are nouns that refer to things that have some kind of actual physical existence (air, building, rock, string). Note, however, that concrete nouns may also operate as abstract nouns in some circumstances (see below). Depending on the context, concrete nouns may be variously categorized as countable (birds, flowers, walls) or uncountable (lace, rainfall, saliva).Abstract NounsAbstract nouns are nouns that refer to ideas, emotions, or other concepts that do not have an actual physical existence (despair, intention, strength, wish). Note that some abstract nouns may also qualify as concrete nouns, depending on the way in which they are employed (the root of a plant/the root of the problem, speak in a whisper/a whisper of doubt). Some abstract nouns are countable (dreams, fears, triumphs), while others are uncountable (charity, ignorance, paleness).Abstract nouns are often created through the addition of a formulaic ending to an existing noun, adjective, or verb. Examples of endings used to create abstract nouns from existing nouns include -cy (accuracy, tenancy), -dom (kingdom, martyrdom), -hood (boyhood, sisterhood), -icide (infanticide), -ism (magnetism, marxism), and -ship (gamesmanship, generalship). Examples of endings used to create abstract nouns from existing adjectives include -ism (feminism, naturalism), -ity (fragility, minority), -ness (coolness, weariness), and -th (depth, hundredth). Examples of endings used to create abstract nouns from existing verbs include -age (breakage, linkage), -al (perusal, rehearsal), -ance (annoyance, performance), -ation (confirmation, imagination), -ence (emergence, reference), -ery (mockery, trickery), -ing (drowning, talking), -ion (action, regulation), -ment (government, statement), and -ure (closure, seizure).Collective NounsA collective noun denotes a particular group of people, animals, or things. Confusion sometimes arises over the question of whether collective nouns when used in the singular should take a singular or plural verb. In cases where the collective noun in question is understood to refer to a class of things of a certain kind, rather than to a grouping of one particular thing, the general rule is that the noun always takes a singular verb, as follows:The furniture has been put into storage. Where a collective noun refers to people in general, or to a broad grouping of people, it is generally treated as plural and takes a plural verb:The people deserve an answer. In many other cases, however, it is not always clear which should be used, and it is often up to the writer to decide which choice to make, since either form is acceptable:The committee is undecided.
The committee are undecided. The use of a singular verb underlines the unity of a group as a single entity, while the choice of a plural verb emphasizes its composition of many individuals. Whichever choice is made, it is important that it is reflected in associated words or phrases in the same sentence, as in the following:The committee is undecided, but it meets again in the morning.
The committee are undecided, but they meet again in the morning. Consistency is essential in these cases, and it is incorrect to treat a collective noun as plural and yet attach a singular possessive pronoun, or vice versa (the committee has decided the proposal does not meet with their approval; the committee have decided the proposal does not meet with its approval). Similarly, where a collective noun is in the singular, its singular state should be reflected in any attached adjectives, even though the accompanying verb may be plural:This troupe are all professional dancers. Where the collective noun is made plural, any attached adjectives become plural in the usual way:These herds will all move south in the winter. Note that some collective nouns are uncountable and cannot be rendered in plural form, as is the case with the names of commercial organizations and other institutions (as in the FBI).Many groups have their own specific collective nouns, sometimes unique to themselves, and mistakes made in identifying these occur frequently. Some collective nouns are more widely known than others, and in the less common cases it may be considered pedantic to use the more strictly correct form (for instance, clamor or yoke) rather than a more general term (such as flock or herd).The following list includes some of the more familiar collective nouns, as well as some of the less widely known.| Individuals | Collective Noun(s) |
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| actors | cast/company/troupe | | airplanes | flight/squadron | | angels | host | | antelopes | herd | | arrows | sheaf | | asses | pace | | badgers | cete | | bears | sloth | | beavers | colony | | bees | swarm | | bells | peal | | birds | flock/flight | | bishops | bench | | boars | singular | | bowls | set | | bread | batch | | buffaloes | herd | | camels | caravan | | cards | deck/pack | | cars | fleet | | cattle | drove/herd | | chickens | brood | | choughs | chattering | | coots | covert | | cormorants | flight | | cranes | herd/sedge/siege | | crocodiles | bask | | crows | murder | | cubs | litter | | dancers | troupe | | deer | herd | | dogs | pack | | dolphins | school | | ducks | paddling/team | | eagles | convocation | | eggs | clutch | | elephants | parade | | elks | gang | | experts | panel | | ferrets | business | | finches | charm | | fishes | shoal | | flies | swarm | | flowers | bouquet/bunch/posy | | foxes | skulk | | frogs | army | | geese | gaggle/skein | | goats | tribe | | golf clubs | set | | grapes | bunch/cluster | | grasshoppers | cloud | | guillemots | bazaar | | gulls | colony | | hares | husk | | hawks | cast | | hens | brood | | herons | siege | | herrings | glean/shoal | | horses | string | | hounds | pack | | insects | swarm | | kangaroos | troop | | kittens | kindle | | laborers | gang | | larks | exaltation | | leopards | leap | | lions | pride | | locusts | plague | | magistrates | bench | | magpies | tittering | | minstrels | troupe | | monkeys | troop | | musicians | band/orchestra | | nightingales | watch | | onions | rope | | otters | family | | owls | parliament | | oxen | drove/herd/team/yoke | | parrots | pandemonium | | partridges | covey | | peacocks | muster | | pearls | rope/string | | penguins | rookery | | pheasants | nye | | pigs | litter | | plovers | congregation | | porpoises | school | | pups | litter | | quails | bevy | | rabbits | bury/nest | | rags | bundle | | rats | colony | | ravens | unkindness | | rhinoceroses | crash | | rooks | building/clamor | | runners | field | | sailors | crew | | sails | suit | | seals | herd/pod | | sheep | flock | | ships | fleet/flotilla/squadron | | soldiers | army | | sparrows | host | | squirrels | dray | | starlings | murmuration | | stars | cluster/constellation | | steps | flight | | swallows | flight | | swifts | flock | | thrushes | mutation | | tigers | ambush | | toads | knot | | trees | clump | | turkeys | rafter | | turtles | turn | | whales | gam/pod/school | | wolves | pack/rout | | woodcocks | fall | | woodpeckers | descent | | worshippers | congregation | | zebras | zeal |
Plurals of NounsThe plurals of nouns can take a number of different forms, of which three are classed regular endings. Most nouns are made plural through the simple addition of an -s at the end (dogs, keys, radios, wheels). Nouns that end with the letters -ch, -s, -sh, -x, and -z generally take the ending -es (batches, crosses, fishes, boxes, quizzes). Nouns that end in a consonant and -y have the plural ending -ies (armies, babies, cities, ladies, stories, territories). This last rule does not always apply, however, in the case of proper nouns, which sometimes take the regular -s ending (the O'Reillys).These so-called regular endings are not the only form of plural nouns. There are a number of irregular plurals that can cause confusion because they do not follow set rules.Some nouns ending with -f or -fe, for instance, take the plural ending -s (beliefs, griefs, gulfs, roofs), while others take the ending -ves (calves, halves, selves, thieves, wolves). There is no set rule here, and the only way to master the difference is to become familiar with each individual case. Note that in certain instances either ending, -fs or -ves, is acceptable, although one form may be preferred or more common (dwarfs/dwarves, hooves/hoofs, scarves/scarfs). Whichever choice is made, it is important to be consistent and at all costs to avoid using both forms in the same piece of writing.In general, the spelling of singular nouns that end in -is is altered to -es in the plural (axis/axes, crisis/crises). But note that some follow the regular ending rule of -es (iris/irises, trellis/trellises).Many nouns ending with -o take an -s ending (ghettos, pianos, solos, videos). Others, however, take an es ending (echoes, tomatoes, volcanoes). There is no rule governing such words, although words ending with -o that are abbreviated versions of longer words always take an -s ending (photos, rhinos). Once again, there are a number of nouns that can be made plural through the addition of either -s or -es, and neither version is more correct than the other, although one is invariably preferred in the dictionary (cargoes/cargos, zeros/zeroes).Nouns that end with -on sometimes assume an -s ending in the plural (cartons, coupons), But others take an -a ending (criterion/criteria), while still others may take either ending (automaton/automatons or automata).Nouns that end in -um sometimes take the plural ending -a (bacterium/bacteria, stratum/strata). Others, however, take the regular ending -s (conundrum/conundrums). As before, there is a further group that may take either ending (aquariums/aquaria, referendums/referenda).Nouns that end in -us usually take the ending -i in the plural (nucleus/nuclei, stimulus/stimuli), although others take -ses (bonus/bonuses, genius/geniuses). Some words, however, are equally correct with either ending (radiuses/radii, syllabuses/syllabi).Some nouns, notably animal names, are identical in both their singular and plural forms. Examples of such nouns (sometimes called zero plurals) include aircraft, crossroads, deer, fish (though fishes is also found), series, and sheep. This class of nouns also includes some nationalities (Chinese, Sudanese).Other irregular plural forms defy categorization. Thus, the plural of mouse is mice (although the plural of house is houses, not hice). Other examples include child/children, foot/feet, goose/geese, man/men, and woman/women.The list on the following page details some of the more common irregular plural forms.| Singular Noun Ending | Irregular Plural Noun Ending |
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| -an | -en | | -f | -fs/-ves | | -fe | -ves | | -is | -es/-ises | | -ld | -ren | | -o | -s/-es | | -on | -s/-a | | -oose | -eese | | -oot | -eet | | -ouse | -s/-ice |
Nouns borrowed from foreign languages pose a particular problem, since their plural forms may sometimes be created by adding an -s according to English-language rules or other times by following the convention of the original language. Sometimes both alternatives are considered acceptable, as is the case with words from French ending in -eau (chateaus/chateaux, gateaus/gateaux, tableaus/tableaux). Words taken from Latin and Greek sometimes retain the plural as it appeared in the original language (fungus/fungi, larva/larvae, phenomenon/phenomena), but on other occasions simply acquire an -s in the plural form (era/eras, quota/quotas). Again, there are circumstances when there is more than one choice of permissible ending (formulas/formulae, octopuses/octopi).Words ending in -ex or -ix tend to adopt the plural ending -es (complex/complexes, prefix/prefixes). Some, however, can also take the irregular plural ending -ices (appendix/appendices, index/indices).As a general rule, when there is a choice between a regular plural ending (such as -s) and an irregular one (such as -ices), the approach adopted by many users is to employ the regular ending in everyday use and to reserve the irregular ending for more formal or technical contexts. This principle should be treated with caution, however, since the different plurals may in some circumstances convey different meanings: media, for instance, refers to means of communication and does not mean the same as mediums, which refers (among other things) to people who claim to act as conduits of communication with the afterworld. Guidance as to the best choice to be made in specific circumstances is given in most good dictionaries.Nouns that have distinct singular and plural forms are known as variable nouns. Nouns that are found only in either their singular or plural form, but not in both, are formally called invariable nouns (cardboard, cattle, jolliness, people, series). Particular notice should be taken of a small class of invariable nouns that end in -s (and thus might be assumed to be plural) but are in fact singular and should thus take singular verbs (checkers, mathematics, news):Checkers is a great game.
The news has just come through. It should also be noted, though, that some apparently plural nouns ending with -s may refer to a single item (goggles, scissors, trousers), even though they take a plural verb:My goggles are all steamed up.
Those are my trousers. Words that end in -ics may be the cause of confusion since they act as singular nouns in some circumstances but as plurals in others:Politics is not an exact science.
The chairman's politics are not up for discussion. It should be remembered, however, that on occasion plural words ending in -ics may still have the singular form -ic (tactic/tactics).Another problematic area that can lead to errors concerns the plurals of compound nouns (nouns that comprise more than one word; see below) and the difficulty of knowing which word should take a plural ending. When the compound noun consists of a noun and an adjective, the noun should be made plural (courts martial, poets laureate), though in everyday use it is common for the plural ending to be tacked onto the second word. When a compound noun consists of two nouns, usually the second noun should be made plural (town clerks), although exceptions exist (sergeants major). Where a compound noun comprises a noun together with a prepositional phrase or adverb, the plural ending is attached to the noun (fathers-in-law, fly-by-nights, lookers-on). In those cases where a compound noun does not actually contain any nouns, then the plural ending is added at the end (go-betweens).Gender of NounsIn many languages it is important to know whether a noun is masculine or feminine because all nouns have a gender, which influences the form of associated pronouns and other parts of speech. In English, however, the gender of nouns is far less important, and most nouns are considered gender neutral.The issue of gender is, however, sometimes relevant, particularly as it is expressed in pronouns (he, she, his, hers, etc.) linked to the noun in question. Most nouns (for example, brick, bicycle, pen, shirt, etc.) can be categorized as inanimate nouns that do not have a gender and are thus rendered as it or its when reduced to pronouns. Others, however, are classed as animate nouns and are clearly specifically masculine or feminine by their very nature (man, woman, brother, sister), an identity that is reflected in their pronoun forms:Your mother said she would take us home.
The tall man wants his hat back. Some nouns may be either masculine or feminine, depending on the context:That cat is never slow to defend his territory from other males.
Our cat never leaves her kittens. Most nouns that have a masculine or feminine identity relate to people (personal nouns) or to male and female animals (nonpersonal nouns) Nonetheless, it is still normally used in circumstances where the gender is either unknown or not germane to the context:The baby has dropped its rattle.
Give the dog its ball. Note, however, that in recent years the identification of gender in nouns has become a slightly contentious issue, with determined attempts being made in some quarters to resist the usual convention of assuming nouns to be masculine where both sexes are actually being referred to:This building is a testament to man and his imagination.
The good athlete takes his training seriously. One alternative is to opt for his or her in such circumstances (a pupil and his or her parents), although some people find this usage awkward. An alternative is to use a plural (pupils and their parents).A small number of apparently genderless nouns referring to inanimate objects are traditionally treated as having a specific gender, usually feminine. These include various means of transport, machinery, and countries:The new boat made her maiden voyage last week.
The law applies throughout Britain and her dominions. In recent years this custom is also being set aside for more gender-neutral forms. (The new boat made its maiden voyage last week. The law applies throughout Britain and its dominions.)Many nouns have different masculine and feminine forms (brother/sister, cock/hen, king/queen, man/woman), which are widely understood. The most common of these include feminine nouns created by adding the ending -ess to an existing masculine noun (author/authoress, lion/lioness, manager/manageress, murderer/murderess). Care should be taken in using many of these, however, since they may be considered patronizing or sexist, particularly as relating to jobs and official positions. It may be safer to opt either for an alternative that is understood to include both sexes (author, manager) or for a more neutral term that does not have any gender overtones at all (police officer, salesperson).The issue of linguistic sensitivity does not extend to the many alternative names for males and females of other species besides the human race. The following list details some of the more commonly encountered of these.| Species | Male | Female |
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| antelope | buck | doe | | bear | boar | sow | | bird | cock | hen | | bobcat | tom | lioness | | cat | tom | queen | | cattle | bull | cow | | chicken | cock | hen | | cougar | tom | lioness | | deer | stag | doe | | dog | dog | bitch | | duck | drake | duck | | eagle | eagle | eagle | | elephant | bull | cow | | fish | cock | hen | | fox | dog | vixen | | goat | billy-goat | nanny-goat | | goose | gander | goose | | hare | buck | doe | | horse | stallion | mare | | lion | lion | lioness | | ox | bullock | cow | | pheasant | cock | hen | | pig | boar | sow | | rabbit | buck | doe | | rhinoceros | bull | cow | | seal | bull | cow | | sheep | ram | ewe | | swan | cob | pen | | tiger | tiger | tigress | | whale | bull | cow | | wolf | dog | bitch |
Possessive NounsPossessive nouns are nouns that are altered to show that they have some right of possession or ownership over whatever follows. In English the possessive (or genitive) case is usually indicated by the addition of 's to the noun in question (a day's work, Bob's house, the giraffe's neck, the deceased's wishes). The noun itself remains otherwise unchanged. The same rule applies to singular nouns that end with an s (a manageress's income, the walrus's nose), as it also does to singular proper nouns of one syllable (James's bag, Wes's car). Note, however, that in the case of proper nouns of more than one syllable it is considered acceptable to add either 's or ' (single apostrophe without the s) (Charles's room or Charles' room). The convention for plural nouns that end in an s is to add an apostrophe only (the actors' union, the voters' choice). Plural nouns that end in a letter other than s take 's as elsewhere (the brethren's prayers, the men's pay, on the mafia's orders).As regards inanimate objects, the usual method of indicating possession is through the insertion of of (the bottom of the heap, the last of his friends). This alternate method may also sometimes be applied to people and animals (the fate of the president, the wings of a dove). In certain cases—so-called double genitives, double possessives, or post-genitives—both of and the possessive ending 's or ' (apostrophe) may be used together (some relations of Helen's).In the case of noun phrases, the correct procedure is to attach the 's or ' ending to the last word of the phrase (the court of appeal's decision, the queen of England's family).It should be noted that the presence of a genitive ending does not necessarily indicate possession. Note the absence of a possessive relationship in various familiar figurative phrases, expressions of time, and where the possessive construction is interpreted as meaning "by" rather than "of" (a stone's throw, in two days' time, the government's retraction of aid).Compound NounsNouns are sometimes employed adjectivally (as modifiers) in combination with other nouns to form single terms called compound nouns (road rage, coffee mug, people carrier, carport, drugstore, house paint). Note that in some cases it is usual to join the two words with a hyphen, whereas elsewhere the words may be combined as one or else kept separate. When an open compound noun is used adjectivally, it is usual for a hyphen to be inserted (people-carrier manufacturer).There are various ways in which compound nouns may be formed. Some result from the combination of two nouns (beach patrol, soundwave, theater-goer). Others are formed from the combination of a noun and an adjective (lieutenant general, mother superior) or an adjective and a noun (darkroom, sweetheart); of a noun and an adverb (looker-on, passer-by); of a verb and an adverb (breakup, go-between); of a noun, a preposition or conjunction, and another noun (rum and coke, sister-in-law); of an adverb or preposition and a noun (downtown, underworld); of a single letter and noun (B movie, T-shirt); or some other combination (has-been, wannabe).When making compound nouns plural, it is generally correct to make the noun part of the compound plural (demigods, hangers-on). When the compound noun consists of two nouns, the second noun takes the plural ending (beekeepers, house owners). In the case of compound nouns comprising a noun with a preposition and another noun, it is the first noun that takes the plural ending (brothers-in-law, men-about-town) whereas compound nouns created through the combination of a noun with a conjunction and another noun have the plural ending on the second noun (two whisky and sodas). When the compound noun contains no nouns at all, the plural ending is attached to the final part (also-rans, spin-offs). Note that in a few cases there is more than one acceptable form (courts-martials/court-martials).Nouns as VerbsNouns are occasionally reinvented as verbs, although caution should be exercised against employing them in this manner too often, particularly in formal contexts, as the practice is disliked by many people. The practice has nonetheless gathered pace in recent years, with such (new usages) as the following:The president hopes to progress the project rapidly over the next 10 years.
The property will be gifted to the university.
The organ was helicoptered to the hospital. Such reinventions are frequently criticized when first encountered, but many have slowly won acceptance as verbs in their own right. Examples of so-called deverbal nouns that overcame initial opposition to win general acceptance include chair, head, host, and question.
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