A sentence comprises a meaningful and grammatically complete unit consisting of one or more words. To be grammatically correct a sentence must start with a capital letter, include a verb, and end with a period, exclamation point, or question mark. In practice, however many sentences lack verbs. Verbless sentences are often used for effect, sometimes to emphasize the previous sentence:Nothing had changed. Nothing at all.
Things will work out. With luck. Parts of a SentenceSentences are composed of a number of different parts, which are governed by various conventions and rules, although personal or house style is also a significant factor to bear in mind while writing. The five basic parts of a sentence are the subject, the verb, the object, associated complements, and associated adverbials.SubjectThe subject of a sentence is the person or thing that the sentence is about and is usually the person or thing that carries out the action of the verb:The principal made a speech to the whole school.
That dog will bark if a stranger approaches the house.
She left work early that afternoon.
Life is full of surprises. The subject usually appears toward the beginning of a sentence and precedes the verb, but sometimes it appears elsewhere. In questions, for instance, the subject is generally placed after the verb or the first auxiliary verb:Where is my bag?
Did you eat yet?
When will the train arrive? The subject often appears after the verb for reasons of emphasis:Down went his opponent.
Gone were all her dreams. The subject also often appears after the verb in the reporting clause that follows direct speech:"Come in," said the doctor.
"Tell me everything," whispered Helen. A subject may be made up of a single noun or pronoun or a longer phrase:They liked each other.
Climbing mountains with friends is his favorite pastime.
Why he died has yet to be explained. It may also consist of two or more nouns or pronouns:Cats and dogs are popular pets.
You and I can share the cost. It is also possible for the subject to consist of the -ing form of a verb (a gerund):Collecting stamps is his favorite pastime.
Walking is good for the health. Note that sometimes the subject may be a subordinate clause:What we ask is to be left in peace. The form of the subject decides the form of the verb, regardless of which comes first. If the subject is singular, the verb must also be in the singular; if the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural. This is known as concord, or agreement.He likes to go fishing.
They know what will happen if they misbehave. Sometimes it is not always immediately clear whether the verb should be singular or plural. Note, for instance, the form of the verb in the following examples:A collection of objects was brought out for inspection.
The aims of the policy are threefold. In the first example a singular noun (collection) is linked to a plural noun (objects) by of. In the second example a plural noun is similarly linked to a singular noun. In both cases the verb follows the form of the first noun, which is the subject of the sentence (followed by a prepositional phrase). At times, there is scope for some flexibility in such cases, depending on whether the writer wishes to emphasize the unity of the group of objects or persons or to highlight them as individuals:A number of items have been retrieved from the well.
A group of teenagers were waiting outside.
The squad of new recruits was drawn up in two ranks.
A row of trees was destroyed in the blast. VerbVerbs often play the central role in a sentence and convey the most essential information:She broke the window.
They stopped at the light. On other occasions, though, the verb may be no more than a connecting word linking the subject with other parts of a sentence. Typical of such linking verbs are the verbs be, seem, and feel:The aim of this change in direction is to improve profit margins.
The storm seems to have blown over.
Something felt funny about the whole business. ObjectThe object of a sentence usually follows the subject and the verb and denotes the person or thing that is affected by the verb. There are two types of object.A direct object is a person or thing directly affected by the verb:The boy caught the ball.
The bird ate the seed.
Discussing politics bores her. Where it is not immediately obvious what the object of the sentence is, one solution is to ask a question about the sentence beginning with what or who/whom (what did the boy catch? what did the bird eat? whom does discussing politics bore?).An indirect object is an additional object that sometimes appears with certain verbs, notably verbs relating to the act of giving. It designates the person or thing to which or for which the action occurs.He sold his car to her.
She bought a new leash for the dog.
The noise gave the horse a fright.
They gave their parents a surprise party. If it is not obvious whether an object is indirect, the easiest way to identify it is by asking yourself a question about the sentence beginning with to whom, to what, for whom, or for what (to whom did he sell his car? for what did she buy a new leash? to what did the noise give a fright? for whom did they give a surprise party?).Indirect objects are usually employed alongside direct objects, but sometimes the meaning of the direct object is absorbed by the indirect object and the direct object is omitted altogether. In the following examples the indirect objects have effectively made the direct objects (in brackets) redundant:She served the customers [a drink].
I told them [something]. Where a sentence contains both a direct and an indirect object, the indirect object appears first, unless preceded by a preposition, such as for or to:He wrote the man [indirect object] a dedication [direct object] in his new book.
Tell me [indirect object] the truth [direct object]. Both direct and indirect objects may consist of more than one noun or pronoun:Give the child at the door some money.
Pass me the book with the yellow cover. They may also consist of a subordinate clause:She'll sell the car to whoever offers the most money.
We'll take what she gave us into the house.
They know why the team keeps losing. Both types of object may also consist of the -ing form of a verb (acting as a gerund):The pupils all enjoy singing.
The priest refused to give dancing in the streets his approval. ComplementIn some sentences what follows the verb is termed a complement instead of an object because it simply adds more information about the subject or object of the verb. Complements commonly appear with a certain class of verbs (linking verbs or copular verbs) that serve primarily to link parts of the sentence (appear, be, become, feel, grow, seem, etc.):In her youth she was a champion rider.
That seems a foregone conclusion.
The night grew dark. A complement that relates to the subject (termed a subject complement) is usually placed after the verb:Her clothes were totally unsuitable.
He is a much-admired writer and thinker. A complement that relates to the object of the verb (a so-called object complement) consists of the direct object and all associated, descriptive words, usually placed after the object:She painted the town red.
They crowned her queen.
This will make the journey shorter. A complement may consist of a single word or a longer phrase. Most complements take the form of an adjective or a noun phrase:The boat is a catamaran.
The woman became angry.
The box was empty. Others, however, may be a pronoun or a longer clause:This is it.
That is something to be discussed. AdverbialThe adverbial refers to the part of the sentence that includes additional information about the verb. It many cases it comprises a single-word adverb:Look closely at the detail.
She wept bitterly. On other occasions it may consist of an adverbial phrase:The deal collapsed relatively soon afterward.
Let's get together again really soon. In some cases the adverbial is made up of a phrase starting with a preposition:He slept in a chair.
The fox wriggled under the wire. It is also possible for a noun phrase to serve as an adverbial:We return next week.
He retired last year. Sometimes the adverbial consists of a subordinate clause:The audience applauded after watching his performance.
They acted because they feared an outbreak of violence. Note that it is possible to encounter more than one adverbial in a single sentence:The package will be delivered by hand, we are promised, later the same day. The adverbial is normally placed after the verb, usually at the end of the clause or sentence. On occasion, however, it may also appear at the start of the sentence or after the subject and before the verb:Because of failing light the game finished early.
The general slowly raised his hand. It should be noted that some verbs are not grammatically complete without the addition of an appropriate adverbial:Several bodies lay on the ground.
He put the gun back in its holster. Structure of SentencesThe usual order of the grammatical elements within a clause or sentence is subject, verb, object/complement/adverbial:The man [subject] closed [verb] the window [object].
The old lady [subject] became [verb] tearful [complement].
The detective [subject] watched [verb] from the shadows [adverbial]. Many sentences may include more than one object or a combination of object and adverbial or object and complement:The boy [subject] told [verb] his sister [object] a lie [object].
The teacher [subject] wrote [verb] a report [object] very soon afterward [adverbial].
This machine [subject] makes [verb] complex tasks [object] simple [complement]. In all such cases everything that follows the subject is called the predicate.There are a number of other possible structures, for instance, object, verb, subject, or object, subject, verb:"Stop!" [object] ordered [verb] the police officer [subject].
"Hold this," [object] he [subject] commanded [verb]. In questions the order is often verb, subject, complement/adverbial:Are [verb] you [subject] comfortable? [complement]
Is [verb] her mother [subject] inside? [adverbial] Sometimes the adverbial appears first:Away went the train. The form of certain parts of the sentence may influence the form of other parts of the sentence. The conventions relating to concord, or agreement, affect verbs and associated subjects and possessive pronouns, and in certain circumstances they also apply to subjects and subject complements and to objects and object complements. Hence, if the subject of a verb is in the singular, then so must be the verb: The girl is over there. If the subject of a verb is in the plural, then so must be the verb: The girls are over there. Note, however, that there is never a requirement for an object and a verb to agree:The aircraft has four engines.
The hotel has few facilities. Other examples of instances where concord is of importance include the subjects and objects of reflexive verbs, which should always harmonize:He blamed himself for the accident.
She worked herself into an early grave. Subjects and possessives that precede related nouns have to be in agreement, too:They lost their stake money.
We love our new house. Subjects and subject complements should also be in concord where the complement consists of a noun or pronoun:He is a fool.
Those are less valuable items. The same is also true of objects and object complements where the complement consists of a noun or pronoun:She considered him a good friend.
He thought them genuine antiques. The above rules hold true in most cases, but there are exceptions. In particular, confusion can sometimes arise where verbs apparently break the rules and appear in concord with the meaning of a subject (in terms of singular or plural) instead of following it grammatically (a phenomenon known as notional concord):Twenty dollars is too much to pay. Conversely, sometimes it may also be considered correct for the verb to agree with the part of the subject closest to it (proximity concord):A selection of products have been reduced in price. Types of SentencesSentences can range from verbless minor sentences of a single word (When? Really? No!) or a brief phrase (No way! For sale. What now? No, of course not!) to major sentences containing a verb and, in their fuller form, one or more clauses, including a subject, a verb, an object, and various modifiers. Major sentences, which can include statements, questions, instructions, exclamations, interjections, and vocatives, are not necessarily long and may be no more than a word or two. The most important requirement is that they are complete:See?
I know.
Help me!
You're kidding. Minor sentences do not contain a verb, but must make sense and be presented in sentence form. They can include exclamations, interjections, greetings, instructions, sayings, and shortened questions:What a shame!
Good evening.
For rent.
No swimming.
Cigarette? Sentences that contain more than one clause are sometimes termed multiple sentences, while those that comprise a single clause are called simple sentences. Multiple sentences can be further divided into compound sentences and complex sentences. Compound sentences contain two main clauses linked by a connecting word such as and, but, or or:She turned off the power, and the house went dark.
He called for help, but there was no one in the vicinity. Complex sentences contain a main clause and a subordinate clause and begin with after, because, before, if, when, while, etc.:I will call the office after I have finished here.
The team has taken shelter in the dugout while the storm continues. StatementA statement is a sentence that conveys information of some kind. It usually contains a subject, which precedes the verb, and ends with a period:The war has ended.
If nothing else happens, the case will be closed. Note that in some circumstances the subject may follow the verb:In went the crowd. QuestionA question is a sentence in which the writer or speaker requests a response. Questions usually contain a subject, which follows the verb (or part of it), and typically end with a question mark:Will you try again?
Is it snowing?
Are you better? Some questions can be answered with a simple affirmative or negative, while others (such as questions beginning with how, what, when, where, who, or why) require more extensive replies:What are you doing tonight?
Who are you going to meet?
Why did you do that? In the case of so-called rhetorical questions, it is often clear that the writer does not actually expect a reply and is merely using a question form to make a point or express frustration or some other emotion:Why do I have to do everything myself?
Why do things like this always happen to me? Another form of question is the tag question, in which a simple statement of fact is turned into a question by the addition of a tag such as isn't it? or don't you?:It's a great car, isn't it?
You like this color, don't you? Tag questions often invite a particular response to the question, but there are cases where no reply is actually invited at all, and the question is really operating as a statement:This is a real mess, isn't it?
They're not coming back, are they? Sometimes their purpose is to make a suggestion (you don't have any ideas, do you?), to make a request (you couldn't lend me a hand, could you?), or to convey anger or another strong emotion (they didn't bother to tell me, did they?).DirectiveDirectives include commands, instructions, requests, and warnings. Commands usually incorporate an imperative verb but do not necessarily have a subject. They often conclude with an exclamation mark, which conveys greater force:Pay attention!
Come here!
Don't do that! Instructions also contain an imperative verb and usually lack a subject. In contrast to commands, they do not usually end with an exclamation mark:Do not touch.
Press here.
Watch your head.
Bring to a boil. Some directives are less insistent than others. Some, indeed, are little more than polite requests or invitations to do something:Come in.
Have a seat.
Come to a party.
Join us over here.
Have a good time. Such entreaties are sometimes prefaced by the verb do, which serves to make an instruction sound more polite or adds emphasis to it:Do have a biscuit.
Do tell me all about it. ExclamationExclamations are a type of sentence conveying surprise, anger, or other strong emotions. They may comprise major or minor sentences, varying in length from a single word to relatively lengthy clauses, and usually end with an exclamation point:Unbelievable!
Oh, no!
Don't do that! Some of the most commonly encountered exclamations begin with how or what:How lovely it is here!
What a fantastic performance! Exclamations differ in structure from statements and questions in that the object or complement often precedes the subject:How sad it was!
What a night that was! Sometimes, however, they may resemble negative questions in form, distinguished only by the exclamation point at the end:Isn't it awful!
Aren't they adorable! InterjectionAn interjection is a category of exclamation incorporating words used to express anger, surprise, pain, etc. Most interjections consist of a single word followed by an exclamation point (ah! ha! mmm! oh! ouch! ugh! yes!). Some are ordinary vocabulary words (cool! great! thanks!), while others have no other use (hey! phew! ssh!).In most cases the use of interjections should be confined to spoken English, because they are widely considered too casual for most formal written contexts. They appear most often in direct reported speech (see the following main section)."Hey! Quit spying on me!"
"Mmm! This tastes great!" Particular care should be taken with regard to obscene or blasphemous expletives, which are very likely to cause offense, particularly when used in the wrong context.Some interjections are inserted in the middle of sentences, typically to express hesitation, and therefore need no exclamation point:We are—er—reluctant to commit further resources.
Your services will—ah—no longer be needed. Elsewhere they can express delight, approval, gratitude, disappointment, disbelief, and other emotions.VocativeA vocative is a word or phrase that specifies the person being addressed. It can take the form of a name (Ted, Mr. Jones, Trigger), a family title (Father, Mom, Junior), a term of endearment (darling, sweetheart), a job title (nurse, governor), a title of respect (sir, your majesty), an insult (fool, numskull), or a generic term for a particular group (children, men).Vocatives may be variously used to draw the attention of a particular person, to distinguish an individual from a group, or to express attachment (or other feeling) toward a particular person. It is generally the case that vocatives are followed by a comma or period:Come inside, sir, and we'll see what we can do.
John, telephone the school.
Good morning, Mr. Smith.
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