The comma (,) is used more frequently than most other punctuation marks. Useful though it undoubtedly is, it is often the cause of confusion since inappropriate use of a comma can change the whole meaning of a sentence and totally mislead the reader. The rules relating to commas have been relaxed in recent years, and their use is now often largely governed by personal preference. It is important to be consistent, however, whatever approach is adopted by the writer.The comma is used both to separate and to link words and clauses within a sentence. Nowadays, it is often used as an alternative to semicolons or colons, and it is preferred because it does not interrupt the flow of a sentence in quite so abrupt a manner. Commas may be used more than once in the same sentence, but if too many appear in a single sentence, it may be better to reword the sentence.The comma is often used to separate items in a list of three or more in order to avoid multiple repetitions of and or or:The bag contains documents, photographs, and maps.
We shall enjoy the game, whether we win, lose, or draw. Called a serial comma in this particular case, it is usually placed before the final and or or. Use of the serial comma is optional, however, as its presence or absence is often a matter of personal taste or house style (red, white, and blue/red, white and blue). The same rule applies when separating items in lists that consists of phrases or clauses rather than single words:She opened the bottle, poured out a glass, and sat down at the table.
He shook his head, shrugged his shoulders and left the room. Regarding the serial comma, purists argue that for precision of meaning a comma should always be inserted before each and every item in a list. The reasoning is to avoid confusion that may otherwise arise over such constructions as the following:The shirts come in yellow, blue and white, and green. Without the serial comma in this example the reader might be misled into thinking the shirts are available in yellow, blue, white, and green.Commas are sometimes used where more than one adjective precedes a noun (a bright, dazzling light; a tall, dark, handsome stranger), but such constructions other times do not require commas (a dark green suit; a big red apple). If the last adjective in a series has a closer relationship with the noun than those preceding, then no comma should be placed before it (a famous German spa; an intelligent, charming little girl). It should also be noted that whereas commas may be placed between two adjectives (hard, grey concrete), they should not be placed between adverbs and adjectives (bright green curtains). Similarly, commas should not be placed before nouns that are being used adjectivally in front of other nouns (an old gas engine).Commas may also be used to separate nonrestrictive clauses and phrases within a sentence, acting in much the same way as parentheses:His mother, who is a nurse, tended the victims.
My car, which runs on unleaded gasoline, is very cost-effective.
I wrote a complaint to the store's manager, F. Johnson. Care should be taken to ensure that the nonrestrictive clause or phrase is enclosed by two commas (unless it comes at the end of the sentence and is ended with a period, exclamation mark, or question mark). Note that the nonrestrictive clause or phrase should be capable of being omitted without disrupting the sense of the surrounding sentence. Careful writers avoid placing single commas between the subject and its verb, although such constructions are increasingly being found in informal contexts:The snake, with distinctive yellow markings and a red zigzag pattern, is of a species hitherto unknown to science. A comma should be used when a person (or persons) is being addressed directly by name, as the name is not considered essential to the meaning of the sentence:Thank you, Mrs. Simpson, but I already have everything I need.
Ladies and gentlemen, let me introduce tonight's speaker. Commas are not placed around restrictive clauses or phrases, which are judged essential to the structure of the surrounding sentence:The CD player that I gave my brother has stopped working.
The former world champion boxer Mike Tyson has lost his latest bout.
The physician who is on-call today is Dr. Williams. In the above examples the clauses or phrases at issue effectively define or identify rather than merely describe the person or object in question.Care should be taken over the placing of commas where their presence or omission may alter the meaning of the sentence. In the following sentence, for instance, the presence of the commas suggests that the writer has only one cat, called Mittens:Our cat, Mittens, has white paws. If the commas in this example are omitted, however, the implication is that Mittens may well be one of many cats owned by the writer and therefore requires specification:Our cat Mittens has white paws. Commas are also commonly used around such transitional adverbs as for example, however, nevertheless, of course, and therefore:This conclusion, however, is based on untested evidence.
These paintings, for example, show the influence of Orientalism.
We shall, of course, offer the usual guarantees. Note, though, that in such cases commas are optional, especially when they do not interrupt the flow of the sentence:We shall indeed study all aspects of the Civil War, including the political and social causes.
The committee could therefore cancel the event altogether. Commas are always inserted to separate interjections, terms of address, and tags used to construct questions:Ah, I see you have already eaten.
Please follow me, sir, and I will show you the way.
This is a pretty pattern, don't you think? Commas may also be used to separate subordinate clauses from the main clause of a sentence when they begin or end the sentence:Bearing in mind what happened last time, the coach decided not to say very much before the game.
Admired for his versatility as an actor, he was also a talented singer. Again, the comma here is optional and may sometimes be omitted:Before opening the door the stranger looked nervously up and down the road.
When the others come back we will go straight to the beach. There is some danger of confusion, however, if the subordinate clause ends with a verb and the next clause begins with a noun. In these cases a comma is necessary:If you refuse to run, another candidate must be found.
After we ran outside, the house exploded. In order to avoid similar confusion, commas should also be employed when sentences begin with an adverb:Nevertheless, we shall proceed with the plan.
However, there is still hope. The same applies when a sentence begins with an adverbial phrase or an adverbial clause:Funnily enough, there was a coffee shop round the very next corner.
If nothing goes wrong, the shipment should arrive tonight. It is also usual to insert a comma where a sentence begins with a phrase based on the infinitive form of a verb or a participle:To tell the truth, the outlook is not encouraging.
Thinking about it again, we may have acted hastily.
Having seen the state of the place, demolition seems the only solution. When a sentence ends with a subordinate clause, it is conventional to insert a comma after the main clause:I have made up my mind, although I still have my doubts.
There is plenty of food in the house, if you get hungry later. A comma should not be used before a subordinate clause that begins with that:He heard that he was to be dismissed the following day.
It is likely that the whole operation will be closed down shortly. Note, though, that the serial comma is used for lists in which each item begins with that:They complained that they had been kept waiting, that they had been offered nothing to eat or drink, and that they had no idea how long it would be before a decision was reached. When two or more main (or independent) clauses are linked by a coordinating conjunction such as and or or, a comma should be placed before the conjunction:The apartment was bright and airy, and the kitchen was well equipped.
She shot him a dazzling smile, but he was not to be won over that easily. Note, however, that when the independent clauses are short the comma is often dispensed with:The meal arrived but he was not hungry.
It was a good deal and they made money. There is no need for a comma before the coordinating conjunction if it links phrases that share the same subject or object:The water spilled out of the bucket and formed a pool on the floor.
She kissed and hugged the child. Main clauses that are not linked by a coordinating conjunction but form part of a single sentence are separated by a semicolon.Commas may be employed in elliptical constructions so as to avoid repeating the same verb or verb phrase in related clauses:He enjoys French and Italian food; his wife, Tex-Mex and Creole.
She decided to go on holiday to Greece; we, to Acapulco. Commas have an important role in punctuating direct speech. The convention is to place a comma between the last word that is spoken and any associated reporting clause (I said, replied the woman, etc.). Note that the comma is inserted inside the closing quotation mark:"Go and tell the others to come in," he ordered. If the reporting clause is inserted in the middle of the direct speech, another comma should be placed before speech is resumed:"Go and tell the others to come in," he ordered, "but take any weapons off them first." Note that no comma should be used with indirect speech:He replied that he would be back soon. For further explanation of direct and indirect speech, see reporting speech.The comma also has a role in the rendering of large numbers in numerical form, generally being used to split digits into groups of three (1,000; 10,000; 100,000; 1,000,000). Alternatively, albeit rarely, some writers insert a space in the place of a comma in such numbers or omit the commas for numbers of just four digits in length.Commas are never used in year dates (1776, 1944) except where they are more than four digits in length (12,000 B.C.). They are, however, used in dates to separate the month and day from the year (September 11, 2001).Other miscellaneous uses of commas include the insertion of a comma between a person's name followed by their job title, rank, honorific title, educational qualification, or the like (George Washington, president of the United States; Bill Jones, head of personnel). They are also used to separate lines in addresses, though not zip codes (The White House, 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, D.C. 20500).
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