A clause is a meaningful group of words that includes a subject and a predicate and typically forms part of a complete longer sentence. There are two main types of clause.A main clause (or independent clause) is complete in itself and so is capable of existing independently as a sentence:He ordered the fish, because that was the only choice left.
As there was nothing left to do, she decided to go home. A sentence must include at least one main clause. Often a complete sentence is no more than a single independent clause:I stayed at home.
She worked all night.
He knows the truth. Some sentences (sometimes called multiple sentences) consist of two or more main clauses, any of which could be taken out of context and used as a complete sentence in its own right:They won the race, but they did not break the record.
She turned down the offer, and today she is one of the richest women in America. A subordinate clause (or dependent clause) is not complete in itself and so is incapable of standing alone as an independent sentence. Subordinate clauses typically begin with such words as although, because, if, or when, all of which imply that there is more to be said:Although the time had come, nothing was ready.
He ordered the fish, because that was the only choice left.
When the others arrive I will light up the barbecue. It is also possible to subdivide clauses according to the type of verb phrase they contain. A clause that contains a finite verb phrase is called a finite clause, while one containing a nonfinite verb phrase is termed a nonfinite clause.An adverbial clause is a clause that provides information about the verb, such as when, where, how, and why something is performed. It may or may not contain a verb itself. Adverbial clauses are typically introduced by such words as because, if, when, where, or while:I need the money because we need a new car.
There will be a riot if nothing is done.
She nodded her head approvingly when she heard what had happened.
That is the shed where the boat is kept.
Tell the crew to eat while they are working. An appositive clause is a clause that adds further detail about a preceding abstract noun (for example, idea, belief, decision):There was no option but to continue, despite the fact that there was little hope of success.
The notion that they could do the job themselves had not occurred to them. Note that appositive clauses always begin with that. Some appositive clauses are restrictive, meaning that they cannot be removed without essential information being lost:He refuted the claim that the accusation had no grounds. Others are nonrestrictive, or capable of being removed without the essential meaning of the sentence being lost:The government's argument (that such a change would be too expensive) has been dismissed by critics. See below for more on restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses.A comment clause is a short clause that is added to a sentence in order to express a view about what is being conveyed. Comment clauses can be inserted at virtually any point in a sentence and are enclosed by commas:The whole class, he was sorry to say, had failed to meet expectations.
What's more, another delivery is not expected until next week. Note that comment clauses are nonrestrictive in nature and can be removed without altering the sense of the surrounding sentence.Comment clauses vary in composition. Some comprise a subject and verb (you know; I guess; it seems) or a subject, verb, and complement (I'm sorry to say; as it happens). Others comprise a subject and verb introduced by the word as (as I said; as you know) or consist of a clause variously introduced by what (what's more; what is strange).Comment clauses can be used for various different effects. Such phrases as I know and I'm sure convey certainty:Such a move, I know, will anger our opponents.
That is against the rules, I'm sure. I suppose and I think are among the comment clauses commonly used to convey speculation or uncertainty:That is the way home, I think.
The family have moved north, I believe. Hope, regret, and other emotions can be conveyed through the use of such comment clauses as I hope, I'm afraid, or we fear:This is the start of a bright new chapter, we hope.
There is nothing left to eat, I'm afraid. Other comment clauses, such as you see, are used in relation to explanatory material or where something is being made clearer:This, you see, is how the system works. A final category of comment clauses is used to address the reader directly:This is the corridor to the kitchens, as you know.
The dress created quite an impression, don't you think? Caution should be used in relation to such comment clauses as you know and I mean, which are commonly employed to fill gaps in spoken English, often purely to buy the speaker time to think, but are considered too casual in most formal written contexts.A comparative clause is a form of clause used when comparing persons or things. Comparative clauses may be subdivided into two categories, the first relating to comparisons between equivalent persons or things and the second to persons or things that are not equivalent to each other.Comparative clauses relating to persons or things that are equivalent to each other employ the construction as … as:He is as reckless as his father is cautious.
This apple is as sweet as that one. Many familiar idiomatic phrases take the form of comparative clauses linking equivalents of various kinds: as clear as day, as good as gold, as light as a feather.Where a comparison is being made between persons or things that are not equivalent a so-called comparative element is employed. Comparative elements may comprise either an adjective ending in -er (longer, older) or a phrase with the word more or less combined with a subordinate clause beginning with than. When someone or something is being compared with a higher or greater equivalent, the word ending -er or more is used:He is younger than his sister.
She has more money than the queen has.
Children today are more environmentally aware than previous generations were. When the comparison is with a lesser equivalent the word less (or fewer if in relation to plurals) is used:They are less eager to go now than they were last night.
There are fewer options now than there were 24 hours ago. In addition to adjectives, comparative elements can include noun phrases (more weapons, a warmer temperature), adverbs or adverb phrases (more steadily, less fully), or pronouns (fewer, more).Note that when parts of the subordinate clause in comparative clauses are parallel in construction to the main clause, they are commonly omitted because they merely repeat what has already been stated:He is as frightened as you [are].
We are selling more units now than [we were] last month. A relative clause provides further information about the subject or object of a sentence that it follows, acting in much the same way as an adjective phrase. Some relative clauses begin with the words that, which, who, whom, or whose (called relative pronouns), while others begin with the words when or where (called relative adverbs):Mrs. Brainerd, whom I greatly respect, is a popular teacher among the students.
The man who broke the bank at Monte Carlo moved on to Las Vegas.
This is the snake that escaped last week.
That was her favorite food when she was young.
This is the house where we shall live when we retire.
The book, which was first published in 1970, has brought in steady royalties. Note that the relative pronouns which and whom are sometimes preceded by a preposition:This is the room in which the murder happened.
She was the author by whom the book was written. In such cases it is incorrect to replace which with that or whom with who.The relative adverbs when and where may on occasion be replaced by such phrases as at which, in which, on which, etc.:That was the day on which the war ended.
This was the place at which the peace was signed. Relative clauses can be subdivided into two categories. A restrictive clause (or defining clause) conveys essential information without which the rest of the sentence would be unclear. It is usually introduced by that, or who:My brother who works in finance may be able to advise us. The clause here is restrictive, because without it, the reader would be unsure which of several possible brothers is the one being referred to. The following examples are also restrictive:The car that he bought was nearly 10 years old.
The path that she followed led through a dark wood. When that refers to the object of a restrictive clause, it may be omitted altogether:The car [that] he bought was nearly ten years old.
The path [that] she followed led through a dark wood. The same applies to whom:She was the woman [whom] he had seen earlier in the evening. In all other cases, however, the relative pronoun should never be omitted.A nonrestrictive clause (or nondefining clause) provides additional or explanatory information that is not essential to the sentence and could be omitted without the reader becoming confused about who or what is being referred to:My brother, who works in finance, may be able to advise us. Here the clause is nonrestrictive because there is only one possible brother being referred to and therefore no doubt about the person specified. Note the addition of commas here, which help distinguish a nonrestrictive clause from a restrictive clause. By extension, it is incorrect to place commas or dashes around a restrictive clause.If a nonrestrictive clause refers to a thing, it should begin with the relative pronoun which:This ring, which belonged to my grandmother, has now been passed to my daughter.
Madrid, which is the capital of Spain, recently suffered a terrorist attack. Confusion often arises over the use of who and whom in relative clauses. Both are used only in relation to people. Who is used where the noun is the subject of the verb, while whom is correct when it is the object:No one has come forward to defend the people who committed this act.
He is the politician whom the voters trust most. Some writers replace who or whom with that in restrictive clauses. Others consider this incorrect:Let me introduce you to the people that made all this possible. A third type of relative clause is the sentential relative clause, in which the clause refers not to a particular word but to an entire clause or to the remainder of the sentence:The captain said the ship was sinking—which caused panic among the passengers. Sentential relative clauses are typically introduced by the pronoun which:She paused before replying, which gave him time to collect his thoughts.
They failed the test, which came as no surprise to their teacher. They may also, however, begin with by which, for which, in which, etc.:The president applauded the initiative, by which he meant the people behind it.
The lieutenant abandoned his post, for which he was later reduced to the ranks. Care should be taken not to interpret sentential relative clauses incorrectly, because there is sometimes room for more than one possible reading:The chairman came into the house, which was remarkable. Here, for instance, it is equally possible that the adjective remarkable refers to the action of the chairman coming into the house as that it refers to the house itself. Only the context in such cases can make the correct interpretation clear. The best alternative in such cases is to rewrite the sentence so that no such confusion arises.
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