CoherenceWhy is coherence in paragraphs a feature of good style? The answer, first and foremost, is that coherence is a valuable quality in itself. Certainly, no writer worth his or her salt would want to produce paragraphs that could be described as incoherent. Coherence is a quality of art. It is to writing roughly what shape is to a physical object. There is usually little point in trying to give text a pleasing shape on the page. Neatness of presentation is all that is required of the writer; the design editor and the typesetter will do the rest. But the mind is nevertheless able to apprehend and appreciate formal qualities in written work even when the eye cannot see them. A coherent, well-rounded paragraph will satisfy the aesthetic sense of more sensitive readers, and even readers who do not respond to aesthetic qualities will value the fact that a paragraph delivers its message clearly and does not distract them with irrelevant material.That is the practical value of coherence above and beyond its aesthetic virtue. If the reader is uninterested in aesthetic satisfaction, he or she will definitely want the satisfaction of having information delivered efficiently. If the thought being offered is an interesting one, then the reader will be eager to receive it and will be dissatisfied if anything interferes with the reception. He or she will not want the thought process that is being presented in the paragraph to be disrupted. The topic sentence might even be seen as a kind of writer's contract with the reader. This, the writer seems to say, is what I intend to write about; you can judge my performance on whether I deliver. If the ensuing paragraph fails to fulfill that contract or fulfillment is unnecessarily delayed, then the reader has the right to feel dissatisfied.So if, to refer to an example used in a previous subsection, the writer contracts in the topic sentence to write about the performance of an actor playing John Proctor, but then uses a good deal of the space in the paragraph to talk about the 17th-century context of The Crucible or its other historical roots in the McCarthy era, the reader may feel that the contract has been broken. Coherence is the quality that ensures that the writer fulfills the contract.There are two basic methods of achieving coherence and unifying paragraphs: through structural organization and through the use of linkers. These two are not mutually exclusive. A well-knit paragraph will probably contain elements of structural organization as well as judiciously placed linkers. Let us deal first with structural organization.Structural OrganizationRecurrenceThe key to achieving coherence through structural organization is repetition or, to use a word with fewer negative overtones, recurrence. What gives coherence to a piece of music—over and above the fact, which may not be obvious to nonmusicians, that it is written in a particular key—is a recurring tune or motif. What gives coherence to poetry—the kind of writing in which formal qualities are most evident—are recurring rhythms, rhymes, and lengths of line. What gives coherence to a paragraph of prose are likewise recurring elements: recurring words or phrases and recurring constructions, together with a general roundedness that links the beginning to the end and a strict concern for the relevance of the contents of the paragraph to its central idea.Recurrence is deliberate repetition that creates a framework. It signals to the reader that a conscious shaping process is at work. As in music, however, when a motif recurs, it may be varied. Instead of repeating a key word in exactly the form in which it occurs in the topic sentence, you may, for instance, use a derivate or a related word. Let us see how this works in practice.Key WordsOne relatively simple way of unifying a paragraph is to repeat or allude to key terms in it, usually words that feature prominently in the topic sentence. Here, from the previous subsection, is an obvious example of this technique:So, what are you going to do? There is so much you want to do, so much you could do, so much you never had time to do while you were working. At the same time, there's nothing to do. At least there's nothing that you have to do. And maybe that's the greatest thing of all. You're free, and you're going to enjoy your freedom more than anything else. The key word is (to) do. Picked up from the question, it is repeated almost to excess in the following paragraph. But there is no mistaking the paragraph's dominant theme.Following is a somewhat subtler use of the same technique in an earlier paragraph from this book. The topic sentence is the second sentence; the key words and other words that relate to them are underlined:Why is coherence in paragraphs a feature of good style? The answer, first and foremost, is that coherence is a valuable quality in itself. Certainly, no writer worth his or her salt would want to produce paragraphs that could be described as incoherent. Coherence is a quality of art. It is to writing roughly what shape is to a physical object. There is usually little point in trying to give text a pleasing shape on the page. Neatness of presentation is all that is required; the design editor and the typesetter will do the rest. But the mind is nevertheless able to apprehend and appreciate formal qualities in written work even when the eye cannot see them. A coherent, well-rounded paragraph will satisfy the aesthetic sense of more sensitive readers, and even readers who do not respond to aesthetic qualities will value the fact that a paragraph delivers its message clearly and does not distract them with irrelevant material. The repetition is not intended to hit the reader in the eye, in this instance. It keeps the paragraph on track. It gently reminds the reader of the principal theme. If the word valuable perhaps does not seem to get its fair share of recurrence, nevertheless the paragraph is full of words that express value or the act of valuation, such as pleasing, neatness, appreciate, and so on.Parallel StructureAnother means of achieving unity in a paragraph is to use the same, or a similar, structure in several of the sentences that it contains. Consider the following paragraph:With my 60th birthday only a few months away, I resolved, knowing that my remaining period of active life must necessarily be limited, to use what time I had more productively. Where I had wasted time before, I would now use every minute to the full. Where I had previously given up when faced with difficulties, I would henceforth persevere to the end. Where in my earlier life I had entered into projects half-heartedly, with only faint expectations of enjoyment or success, from this moment I would devote myself to them body and heart and soul, with confidence that the more commitment I put into them, the more pleasure and benefit I would derive. In short, I resolved to wring every last drop of goodness out of myself before night fell and I went home to my final resting place. But 60 years is a long time to live on this earth, productively or unproductively, and not realize that resolutions are easy to make and hard to sustain. Much of the strength of this paragraph lies in the three sentences, each beginning with Where, that the writer uses to elaborate the idea, put forward in the topic sentence, of resolving to use time more productively. Without this parallel structure, the paragraph would be much less effective, as in the following version:With my 60th birthday only a few months away, I resolved, knowing that my remaining period of active life must necessarily be limited, to use what time I had more productively. I would use every minute to the full and not waste time. Difficulties tended to make me lose heart, but I would henceforth persevere to the end. I had often entered into projects half-heartedly, with only faint expectations of enjoyment or success, but that was going to change, and I would, instead, devote myself to them body and heart and soul…. In the original, the parallel structure—which involves not merely the use of a where clause followed by an I would clause, but repeated contrasts between time before and time after, as in before … now, previously … henceforth, and in my earlier life … as from this moment—is far more emphatic and particularly befits the usual mode of thought or utterance of someone who is making resolutions.Rounding off a ParagraphThe sense of unity in a paragraph is usually considerably enhanced if it can be brought to an effective close. A paragraph is most effectively closed by the kind of sentence familiarly known as a "clincher." A clinching sentence recalls the main theme of the paragraph and/or its opening sentence, sums up the discussion, or offers a comment by the writer on what has just been said. Ideally, a clincher should also provide a lead-in for the next paragraph.Consider again the passage used to exemplify parallel structure. It ends with quite an effective clincher:… But 60 years is a long time to live on this earth, productively or unproductively, and not realize that resolutions are easy to make and hard to sustain. It recalls the opening sentence:With my 60th birthday only a few months away, I resolved, knowing that my remaining period of active life must necessarily be limited, to use what time I had more productively. It also reuses the key words resolution and productively from the topic sentence, offers the writer's ironic comment on his own earnestness, emphatically expressed in the repeated sentence pattern of the central section, and, finally, opens the way for the next paragraph, which deals with his failure to put those resolutions into practice.The "clincher" is to a paragraph roughly what a conclusion is to a larger section of a work. And if a paragraph has a conclusion, it ought in most cases to have an introduction as well. The familiar template of introduction, discussion, conclusion can be a useful guide in constructing paragraphs. Consider again this example paragraph from an earlier subsection:Any production of The Crucible is likely to stand or fall by its John Proctor. Peter O'Brien's fine speaking voice and intelligent delivery of the lines made him a very powerful performer in this part, despite his physical disadvantages. He conveyed all the passion and the torment of the man in the scene with Abigail and was particularly dignified and moving in his final scene. His achievement was all the greater, because he did not really look the part, being slighter and more intellectual in appearance than one would normally expect John Proctor to be. His vocal talents more than made up for any physical deficiencies, however, and this was the rocklike central performance that the play needed. The first sentence is an introduction, emphasizing the importance of the role, but not discussing the actual performance. The second, third, and fourth sentences convey the reviewer's essential message. The fifth sentence, or, rather, the second half of the fifth sentence, sums up the reviewer's assessment of the performance in words that continue the main theme—the actor gave a powerful performance—and at the same time alludes again to the introductory comment on how essential this particular role is to the play. The paragraph, as a result, not only comes to a satisfactory close but has an equally satisfactory overall roundedness.LinkersLinkers, as their name suggests, are continuity words. Their task is to ensure that sentences, though units, are not isolated units but relate to one another and form part of a greater whole. It is possible to write paragraphs in which the sentences seem to stand back to back ignoring one another, like embarrassed guests at a party. Linkers—words and phrases such as but, however, still, next, also, in addition, in contrast—are, like small talk, a great aid to intercommunication. They indicate that the writer is aware of what he or she has said in the previous sentence and is responding to it in some way in the sentence that follows. In short, they enable a paragraph to flow.Here is a paragraph with no linkers:My brother and his family live in Australia. Opportunities for us to see one another are rare. We do occasionally keep in contact by e-mail; we send gifts at Christmas and on birthdays. While my parents were alive, they acted as a communications center for the whole family. They would pass on news and good wishes and ensure that each of us kept up to date with the doings of the other. Since they died, contact between us has dwindled. This happens in a lot of families. Imagine my surprise when one day I heard a ring at the door and found a young man standing on my doorstep who announced that he was my nephew. Here is the same paragraph with linkers, which are underlined:My brother and his family live in Australia. Opportunities for us to see one another are, consequently, rare. We do, however, occasionally keep in contact by e-mail; we also send gifts at Christmas and on birthdays. While my parents were alive, they acted as a communications center for the whole family. They would pass on news and good wishes and ensure that each of us kept up to date with the doings of the other. But since they died, contact between us has dwindled. No doubt this happens in a lot of families. Imagine my surprise, therefore, when one day I heard a ring at the door and found a young man standing on my doorstep who announced that he was my nephew. The difference between the two versions is, on the face of it, slight. The first version is not incorrect; it simply seems, rather abrupt or staccato. There are occasions when, as a writer, you may want to produce a rough-hewn or unpolished effect, but most writers on most occasions aim at smoothness. Inserting linkers helps to achieve that effect.You might argue that if the writer's brother lives in Australia and the writer lives in the United States, it is obvious that opportunities for contact between them will be rare and that, therefore, to put consequently into the second sentence to point out the fact that the latter situation is the result of the former, is superfluous. Strictly speaking, this is true, and if you were rationed as to the number of words you were allowed to use in a passage, you might have to delete some of the linkers. Under normal circumstances, however, when you are more concerned with the overall effect of a paragraph and its coherence and flow than with an exact word count, the linkers should be left in. Even under circumstances where words are rationed, it would be difficult to pretend that the bald and disjointed third sentence of the first version does not benefit from the insertion of however to indicate the contrast with sentences one and two and of also to connect the second part of the sentence to the first. That sentence in particular needs to be integrated with the rest of the paragraph, and, in this instance, that can best be done by the use of linkers.Commonly Used LinkersListed below are some of the most frequently used linking words and phrases, organized by category.When dealing with a new aspect of the subject: And so
Another example/factor/possibility
As will now be proved/shown
First, … second, … third, … etc.
Following this
Next
Then
Turning now to
When reinforcing a point already made:
Again
Besides
For example
For instance
Furthermore
In addition
It should also be borne in mind that
Moreover
When introducing a difference or contrast:
Alternatively
Although
Conversely
Despite this
However
I/we will now turn to
In comparison
In contrast
In spite of this
Meanwhile
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
On the other hand
Still
Yet
When indicating similarity:
By the same token
Furthermore
Likewise
Moreover
Similarly
When indicating a result:
Accordingly
And so
As a result
Consequently
Then
Therefore
Thus
To indicate a summary or restatement:
All things considered
In other words
In short
On the whole
To put it differently/another way
When concluding:
All in all
Finally
In conclusion
Lastly
On balance
To sum up Small words and phrases such as these are useful signposts for the reader. They show him or her what you are doing; they also show him or her that you know what you are doing. They help to create structure in paragraphs; at the same time they give the paragraph coherence by relating sentences to one another. They are extremely useful as writing tools and should not be forgotten or neglected.Linking in Time and SpaceThere is another class of linkers that perform a similar function. These are words that express relationship in time and space. Consider the following paragraph, from which the linking words have been removed:Jessica and Raul had moved to San Francisco in the fall of 1992. It was what they both had wanted, and they were very happy there. They both found jobs and began to make new friends. The West Coast seemed their natural home. However, developments were taking place back in New Jersey that would change everything for them. Jessica always dated the turning point to July 16, 1994. She received a telephone call from her father, and nothing was ever the same again. Now look at the same paragraph with the linking words and phrases restored (and underlined):Jessica and Raul had moved to San Francisco in the fall of 1992. It was what they both had wanted, and at first they were very happy there. They both found jobs and soon began to make new friends. It was not long before the West Coast seemed their natural home. In the meantime, however, developments were taking place back in New Jersey that would change everything for them. Jessica always dated the turning point to July 16, 1994. On that day she received a telephone call from her father, and afterward nothing was ever the same again. The differences between the two versions are again slight, but, as in the previous example, significant. There is a considerable gain in clarity for the reader from the inclusion of small signposts indicating the relationship in time of the various events referred to. There is also a considerable gain in coherence and continuity.Where there is an opportunity to organize the ideas contained in a paragraph in terms of relationship in time and space, that opportunity should be taken. The sort of words and phrases that can enable you to do this are again listed below.To indicate a relationship in time:
afterward
at the same time
earlier
formerly
later
meanwhile
next
simultaneously
soon
then
while
To indicate a relationship in space:
beyond
here
in the distance
nearby
on/to the left
on/to the right
opposite
over there
there These are all small, simple words and phrases. It will probably come quite naturally to most writers to include them in their texts. They deserve highlighting, however, because their value in giving coherence to paragraphs that describe processes or scenes is out of proportion to their ordinariness.
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