Using Primary SourcesAs the examples included in this chapter indicate, strong papers on literary texts incorporate quotations from the text in order to support their points. It is not enough for you to assert your interpretation without providing support or evidence from the text. Without well-chosen quotations to support your argument you are, in effect, saying to the reader, "Take my word for it." It is important to use quotations thoughtfully and selectively. Remember that the paper presents your argument, so choose quotations that support your assertions. Do not let the author's voice overwhelm your own. With that caution in mind, there are some guidelines you should follow to ensure that you use quotations clearly and effectively.Integrate Quotations:Quotations should always be integrated into your own prose. Do not just drop them into your paper without introduction or comment. Otherwise, it is unlikely that your reader will see their function. You can integrate textual support easily and clearly with identifying tags, short phrases that identify the speaker. For example:According to Antonio, "In nature there's no blemish but the mind." While this tag appears before the quotation, you can also use tags after or in the middle of the quoted text, as the following examples demonstrate:"In nature there's no blemish but the mind," suggests Antonio. You can also use a colon to formally introduce a quotation:It is at this point that Antonio gives us one of the most concise visions of tolerance found anywhere in Shakespeare's work: "In nature there's no blemish but the mind." When you quote brief sections of poems (three lines or fewer), use slash marks to indicate the line breaks in the poem:Antonio's frustration at what he believes to be Sebastian's betrayal is the catalyst for a powerful outburst against superficial beauty that masks moral weakness: "But, O, how vile an idol proves this god! / Thou hast, Sebastian, done good feature shame. / In nature there's no blemish but the mind. Note that not all of Shakespeare's dialogue is written in poetry. Sometimes his characters speak in prose too. Often the distinction is an important one, loaded with implications. For example, lower-class characters are more likely to speak in prose rather than verse, or the use of prose may suggest a moment of intimacy when a character feels he or she can shed the niceties of poetic speech and just talk. Whatever the reason, prose is easily identified by the fact that each line does not begin with a capital letter. When quoting prose lines from Shakespeare's plays, there is no need for the slash marks. So, for example, a few lines after Antonio's moving outburst in Twelfth Night, Sir Toby (an aristocrat, but a drunk and waster, too—hence the prose) speaks the following line:"Come hither, Knight. Come hither, Fabian. We'll whisper o'er a couplet or two of most sage saws." Longer quotations (more than four lines of prose or three lines of poetry) should be set off from the rest of your paper in a block quotation. Double-space before you begin the passage, indent it 10 spaces from your left-hand margin, and double-space the passage itself. Because the indentation signals the inclusion of a quotation, do not use quotation marks around the cited passage. Use a colon to introduce the passage:Antonio's frustration at what he believes to be Sebastian's betrayal is the catalyst for a powerful outburst against superficial beauty that masks moral weakness: But, O, how vile an idol proves this god!
Thou hast, Sebastian, done good feature shame.
In nature there's no blemish but the mind.
None can be called deformed but the unkind.
Virtue is beauty, but the beauteous evil
Are empty trunks o'er-flourished by the devil. For Antonio, it is fidelity and honesty that are the true markers of beauty, not the "empty" features of a handsome face. It is also important to interpret quotations after you introduce them and explain how they help advance your point. You cannot assume that your reader will interpret the quotations the same way that you do. My line that begins "For Antonio …" is an attempt to start this process.Quote Accurately:Always quote accurately. Anything within quotations marks must be the author's exact words. There are, however, some rules to follow if you need to modify the quotation to fit into your prose.- Use brackets to indicate any material that might have been added to the author's exact wording. For example, if you need to add any words to the quotation or alter it grammatically to allow it to fit into your prose, indicate your changes in brackets:
Viola confesses that "As [he] is a man, [his] state is desperate for [his] Master's love." - Conversely, if you choose to omit any words from the quotation, use an ellipsis (three spaced periods) to indicate missing words or phrases:
Orsino announces that "When that is known … / A solemn combination shall be made / Of our dear souls." - If you delete a sentence or more, use an ellipsis after a period:
It is at this point that Antonio gives us one of the most concise visions of tolerance found anywhere in Shakespeare's work: "In nature there's no blemish but the mind…. Virtue is beauty, but the beauteous evil / Are empty trunks o'er-flourished by the devil."
Punctuate Properly:Punctuation of quotations often causes more trouble than it should. Once again, you just need to keep these simple rules in mind.- Periods and commas should be placed inside quotation marks, even if they are not part of the original quotation:
Shakespeare, in Kevin Webster's pithy phrase, was "rooted in his moment, not born of the eternal." The only exception to this rule is when the quotation is followed by a parenthetical reference. In this case, the period or comma goes after the citation (more on these later in this chapter):
Shakespeare, in Kevin Webster's pithy phrase, was "rooted in his moment, not born of the eternal" (135). - Other marks of punctuation—colons, semicolons, question marks, and exclamation points—go outside the quotation marks unless they are part of the original quotation:
What does Webster mean when he writes that Shakespeare was "rooted in his moment, not born of the eternal"? The fastidious Webster asks, "Are you certain you have cited me properly?"
Documenting Primary SourcesUnless you are instructed otherwise, you should provide sufficient information for your reader to locate material you quote. Generally, literature papers follow the rules set forth by the Modern Language Association (MLA). These can be found in the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (eighth edition). You should be able to find this book in the reference section of your library. Additionally, its rules for citing both primary and secondary sources are widely available from reputable online sources. One of these is the Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University. OWL's guide to MLA style is available at https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_style_introduction.html. The Modern Language Association also offers answers to frequently asked questions about MLA style on this helpful Web page: https://style.mla.org/category/ask-the-mla/. Generally, when you are citing from literary works in papers, you should keep a few guidelines in mind.Parenthetical Citations:MLA asks for parenthetical references in your text after quotations. When you are working with prose (short stories, novels, or essays) include page numbers in the parentheses:Shakespeare, in Kevin Webster's pithy phrase, was "rooted in his moment, not born of the eternal" (135). When you are quoting poetry, include line numbers:Shakespeare's Sonnet 18 has developed the reputation of a classic love poem. Many readers, then, are surprised to learn that the following oft-quoted lines are addressed to a man: "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? / Thou art more lovely and more temperate" (1–2). Shakespeare's plays—and early modern drama more generally—also have a specific format for citations. Included in the parenthetical reference, in this order, are the act, scene, and line numbers. The first of the two line numbers indicates where the quote begins, while the second tells the reader the number of the last line you quoted. It should look like this:The entire meaning of The Taming of the Shrew can be changed by an ironic reading of Kate's last speech. Does she really mean it, for example, when she states that "Thy husband is thy lord, thy life, thy keeper, / Thy head, thy sovereign …" (5.2.150–51)? Works Cited Page:These parenthetical citations are linked to a separate works cited page at the end of the paper. The works cited page lists works alphabetically by the authors' last name.Shakespeare, William. The Taming of the Shrew. The Norton Shakespeare. Ed. Stephen Greenblatt, et al. New York: Norton, 1997: 133–203. The MLA Handbook includes a full listing of sample entries, as do many of the online explanations of MLA style.Documenting Secondary SourcesTo ensure that your paper is built entirely upon your own ideas and analysis, instructors often ask that you write interpretative papers without any outside research. If, on the other hand, your paper requires research, you must document any secondary sources you use. You need to document direct quotations, summaries, or paraphrases of others' ideas and factual information that is not common knowledge. Follow the guidelines above for quoting primary sources when you use direct quotations from secondary sources. Keep in mind that MLA style also includes specific guidelines for citing electronic sources. OWL's Web site provides a good summary of the MLA and other style guidelines: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/purdue_owl.html.Parenthetical Citations:As with the documentation of primary sources, described above, MLA guidelines require in-text parenthetical references to your secondary sources. Unlike the research papers you might write for a history class, literary research papers following MLA style do not use footnotes as a means of documenting sources. Instead, after a quotation, you should cite the author's last name and the page number:According to one recent biography of Shakespeare, "the dramatist borrowed heavily from a variety of sources, but the originality of each and every play is still without doubt" (Kazinski 216). If you include the name of the author in your prose, then you would include only the page number in your citation. For example:As Robert Kazinski observes of Shakespeare, "the dramatist borrowed heavily from a variety of sources, but the originality of each and every play is still without doubt" (216). If you are including more than one work by the same author, the parenthetical citation should include a shortened yet identifiable version of the title in order to indicate which of the author's works you cite. For example:As Mary Rudolph puts it, "the final notes of A Midsummer Night's Dream, with Puck's evocation of dead men and ominous owls, mar the comic resolution of the play and encourage us to reconsider the preceding events from the play in this new, dark light—the dream becomes a faintly awkward and uncomfortable nightmare" (Midnight 134). Similarly, and just as important, if you summarize or paraphrase the particular ideas of your source, you must provide documentation:It has been observed that Puck's somber speech at the close of the play is potent enough to challenge the comic character of the play (Rudolph 134). Ordering the Bibliography or Works Cited PageLike the primary sources discussed above, the parenthetical references to secondary sources are keyed to a separate works cited page at the end of the paper. Here is an example of a works cited page that uses the examples cited above. Note that when two or more works by the same author are listed, you should use three hyphens followed by a period in the subsequent entries. You can find a complete list of sample entries in the MLA Handbook or from a reputable online summary of MLA style.WORKS CITEDKazinski, Robert. Shakespeare from Afar. New York: NY Press, 2006.
Rudolph, Mary. Another Book about Shakespeare. London: Cockney Press, 1993.
———. Shakespeare at Midnight. New York: NY Press, 2005. PlagiarismFailure to document carefully and thoroughly can leave you open to charges of stealing the ideas of others, which is known as plagiarism, and this is a very serious matter. Remember that it is important to use quotation marks when you use language used by your source, even if you use just one or two words. If you had read the above quotation from Mary Rudolph, it would be plagiarism if you wrote the following: Because of Puck's dark, ominous speech at the play's close, the comic ending of the play is marred, and the dream of the play becomes an uncomfortable nightmare. See how the words and ideas of Rudolph plainly make up the core of this sentence. Instead, you should write in such a way as to acknowledge the source of the thoughts and language in your writing. Something like the following would be fine: Critics have observed that Puck's lines about shadowy night creatures might even make the play something other than a comedy. But what does it become? Is there enough in the play, perhaps, to transform it so far as to become "a faintly awkward and uncomfortable nightmare" (Rudolph 134)?Some cases of plagiarism are the result of students simply not understanding how to quote from secondary sources. This can be avoided simply by having a nonnegotiable bottom line: If the words are not yours, put them in quotation marks and tell the reader who wrote them. Paraphrasing the arguments of others is fine, but again you must acknowledge the source: Mary Rudolph has written convincingly about the distorting effect of Puck's speech about lions, corpses, and owls, suggesting that the play at this point is transformed from dream to nightmare.Closely related to all of this is the question of how to use secondary sources. Accidental plagiarism is often the result of students wanting to use outside opinions and ideas but not knowing what to do with them. The two most effective ways of using outside sources—both of which have built-in guards against accidental plagiarism—are either as evidence to support your argument or as a challenge to your ideas that you must defeat. In the first case, you are basically saying, here is someone who thinks the same as I do: Mary Rudolph makes a fine point when she argues that A Midsummer Night's Dream finally may be seen as more nightmare than dream (134). In the second, you challenge the author: While Mary Rudolph has suggested that the play is more nightmare than dream (134), this seems like an exaggeration. The first strategy can become a little static if used too often, but the second can generate energy in your paper.However, to be blunt, many cases of plagiarism are simply the result of dishonesty and laziness. Be aware that plagiarism can haunt a student years after the event, perhaps even preventing him or her from getting into certain schools or programs down the road. While it has become all too easy to plagiarize using the Internet, Web-based methods for catching plagiarists are developing quickly as well. Perhaps the greatest weapon instructors have against plagiarism, however, is a well-trained eye; many instructors will have read hundreds if not thousands of student essays and will have become adept at noticing the telltale signs of plagiarism. It is certainly possible that you may know people who have plagiarized and gotten away with it, but their luck is sure to run out sooner rather than later.Finally, while it is not necessary to document well-known facts, often referred to as "common knowledge," any ideas or language that you take from someone else must be properly documented. Common knowledge generally includes the birth and death dates of authors or other well-documented facts of their lives. An often-cited guideline is that if you can find the information in three sources, it is common knowledge. Despite this guideline, it is, admittedly, often difficult to know if the facts you uncover are common knowledge or not. When in doubt, document your source.Sample Essay 1Jodee Brown
Ms. Sterling
English 160
January 23, 2013 The "New Woman" in Fitzgerald's "Bernice Bobs Her Hair" F. Scott Fitzgerald's "Bernice Bobs Her Hair" is set in the early 20th century, a time in which gender roles were undergoing great change. Because of the "increase in women's leisure time afforded by the mechanization of many traditional domestic chores (washing, ironing, cleaning) and the accessibility of mass-produced food items like bread," women in the 1920s "suddenly had fewer taxing, routine demands on their time" (Fryer 8). This introduced the possibility of women working outside the home. Additionally, women had just achieved the right to vote. Clearly, there were major social changes under way, and Fitzgerald's "Bernice Bobs Her Hair" describes and comments on these changes. Marjorie, one of the story's principal female characters, represents the new model of femininity, while her cousin Bernice remains connected to the older values of her parents' generation. Marjorie indoctrinates Bernice into new ideas of womanhood, helping her move from a belief that women are timid, sentimental creatures to a belief that women should be cheerful, lively, and witty. Although Marjorie's ideas are supposed to be progressive, they share the same central flaw as Bernice's—they imply that the supreme goal of women is to please men—while introducing a troubling new one: ruthless competition. In the story, it soon becomes clear that Marjorie and Bernice have very different ideas of femininity and womanhood. Bernice finds her cousin "rather cold" and feels "the same difficulty in talking to her that she had in talking to men. Marjorie never giggled, was never frightened, seldom embarrassed, and in fact had very few of the qualities which Bernice considered appropriately and blessedly feminine" (29). Bernice's criticism of Marjorie lets us know that Bernice believes women should exhibit warmth and feeling. Not surprisingly, then, Bernice longs to share giggles and tears with her cousin, to develop an emotional connection to her; however, Marjorie, we are told, "had no female intimates," as she "considered girls stupid" (29). When Bernice and Marjorie confront each other, Marjorie makes it clear that she is well aware that her definition of womanhood is decidedly different from Bernice's. When Bernice exclaims to Marjorie, "I think you're hard and selfish, and you haven't a feminine quality in you," Marjorie replies, "Girls like you are responsible for all the tiresome colorless marriages…. What a blow it must be when a man with imagination marries the beautiful bundle of clothing that he's been building ideals round, and finds that she's just a weak, whining, cowardly mass of affectations!" (34). Marjorie completely rejects the identification of womanhood with sentiment, which she equates with affectation. Further, her comments suggest that she believes a woman should have more substance and strength than is traditionally considered good for her. This difference in Marjorie's and Bernice's ideas about femininity reflects evolving social norms; Bernice's idea of womanhood is connected to that of the generation before her, while Marjorie is more in tune with the new ideas just coming into the mainstream. When Marjorie complains to her mother about Bernice, she already knows what her mother will say, down to the very arguments she will use to say that Bernice is a good example of womanhood. Marjorie states, "Oh, I know what you're going to say! So many people have told you how pretty and sweet she is, and how she can cook! What of it? She has a bum time. Men don't like her" (30). Marjorie can predict what her mother will say because she realizes that her mother approves of Bernice since Bernice fits her generation's idea of a good woman; she is pretty, sweet, and domestic. These characteristics are not all that is necessary in Marjorie's world. And while it seems promising at first that popularity in Marjorie's generation is not judged by looks, social standing, or domestic ability alone, we soon begin to wonder if the characteristics valued by Marjorie's generation are really any more substantial than those valued by her mother's. When her mother complains that "other girls not half so sweet and attractive [as Bernice] get partners," such as Martha Carey, who is "stout and loud" and whose "mother is distinctly common," and Roberta Dillon, who "is so thin this year," Marjorie counters that "Martha is cheerful and awfully witty and an awfully slick girl, and Roberta's a marvelous dancer" (31). The substance and strength that Marjorie hinted at to Bernice seem ultimately to be nothing more than wit and charm. Women are now expected to be more active, but their actions are not an expression of their own desire or will. They are expressly designed to entertain men. Therefore, although Bernice tries to behave in as demure a fashion as possible, while Marjorie and her friends attempt to be as lively and entertaining as they can be, the goals of both groups are actually the same—to attract men. Marjorie's most dramatic statement regarding Bernice's failure is that "[m]en don't like her" (30). When Marjorie explains to Bernice how to be successful—how to make men like her—according to the fashion of the day—we become even more suspicious that the new model of womanhood is not much more substantial or progressive than the old. First, Marjorie explains to a bewildered Bernice that although she despises "[d]ainty feminine things," "a girl has to be dainty in person. If she looks like a million dollars she can talk about Russia, ping-pong, or the League of Nations and get away with it" (35). She continues, informing Bernice that she must not neglect the "sad birds" at a party, because if a girl can make enough of the unpopular boys like her, then she will appear more popular, which will then attract a more desirable group of suitors. Besides, one can at least get in some good practice at one's dancing and conversational skill with even the saddest of birds. Bernice learns well. She does not talk about her hometown, cars, or her school but learns to confine "her conversation to me, you, and us" (39). She feigns delight when a not very interesting boy cuts in on the dance floor for the eighth time. In summary, what Bernice learns is that the new woman has to look attractive enough in order to "get away with" talking about politics or sports. She learns also, from the very person who had faulted her for affectation, to pretend enchantment and delight when she does not feel it. Sadly, Bernice also learns that the giggling conspiratorial conversations that she expects between female friends have been replaced with ruthless competition. Marjorie may have helped her cousin gain popularity, but she will not be bested at her own game. When Marjorie's best beau, Warren, begins to court Bernice, Marjorie tricks Bernice into getting her hair bobbed, although both young women know that this will be a disaster. According to Linda Pelzer, "[t]he clever twist of the story's ending certainly demonstrates the truth of Marjorie's assertion to her mother that 'these day's it's every girl for herself' and underscores the competitiveness of social success" (26). In her room the night of the fateful trip to the barber, Bernice wears "a new look" which "carried consequences" (46). Acting in a way that might be considered "selfish and hard," qualities she had once condemned in Marjorie, Bernice lops off Marjorie's braids and deposits them on Warren's front porch on her way out of town. Bernice has internalized the new model of femininity, but it is not an entirely positive development. While exerting her own will and building confidence are positive results of her time with Marjorie, Bernice has, for the most part, only learned social skills designed to make her more appealing to men, and she has become competitive and selfish. The story emphasizes that not all change is progress. Indeed, it implicitly criticizes the fact that in an attempt to achieve equality, women were, in a way, attempting to become more like the stereotypical male—self-absorbed, calculating, and competitive—and suggests that perhaps women should develop their own strengths and demand equality on their own terms instead. WORKS CITED Fitzgerald, F. Scott. "Bernice Bobs Her Hair." The Short Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald: A New Collection. New York: Scribner's, 1989. 25–47.
Fryer, Sarah Beebe. Fitzgerald's New Women: Harbingers of Change. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research, 1988.
Pelzer, Linda C. Student Companion to F. Scott Fitzgerald. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2000. Sample Essay 2Jodee Brown
Ms. Sterling
English 160
January 23, 2013 SCIENTIFIC OBSESSION IN HAWTHORNE'S "THE BIRTH-MARK" In "The Birth-mark," Nathaniel Hawthorne first introduces his main character as "a man of science." In the second paragraph we learn the name of the man of science: Aylmer. Scholars have noted that Aylmer's name means "noble," and it does seem that there is much that is noble about him. At first, the narrator seems to admire Aylmer's scientific abilities. As the story proceeds, however, it pits Aylmer's love of science against his love for his wife, Georgiana. In the second paragraph the narrator tells us that this struggle has "a deeply impressive moral." The moral seems to be revealed in Aylmer's determination to remove a birthmark from Georgiana's face. This experiment ends in Georgiana's death, which seems to show that Aylmer is not an entirely noble character. His science and his learning are admirable, but his obsession with his scientific experiments is a major flaw. Since Aylmer's experiment ends in Georgiana's death, readers might not think of him as noble at all, but the story provides evidence suggesting that aspects of Aylmer's character are worthy of respect. Late in the story, the narrator calls Aylmer a "man of genius" (272). Clearly, there is something to admire in Aylmer's intelligence, and Georgiana sees this. Georgiana represents goodness in the story, and she falls in love with Aylmer. This alone must say something about his character. Later, when she reads his journal and learns of his failed experiments, Georgiana tells him, "It has made me worship you more than ever" (272). At the end of the story, as she is dying, Georgiana again professes her love for her husband and reinforces the idea that in some ways Aylmer is noble. She tells him, "You have aimed loftily!—you have done nobly! Do not repent that with so high and pure a feeling, you have rejected the best that earth could offer" (277). Even in the face of Aylmer's most awful failure, the word "nobly" is used to describe him. In spite of his obvious shortcomings, there is something noble about Aylmer. This most significant failure shows the reader Aylmer's greatest flaws. The story's opening paragraph introduces the conflict that will drive the story's plot, Aylmer's love of science versus his love for his wife, and it asks whether his "love for his young wife might prove the stronger of the two" (259). It does not take long for the reader to see that Aylmer's love for science has become an obsession. Even the narrator's word choice in the first paragraph hints that Aylmer's love of science goes a bit too far: "He had devoted himself … too unreservedly to scientific studies, ever to be weaned from them by a second passion" (259). The phrase "too unreservedly" implies excess, as does labeling Aylmer's love for his wife a "second passion." Similarly, it is helpful to chart Aylmer's changing attitude toward the birthmark. Although he did not think of the birthmark much before their marriage, afterward Aylmer wishes the mark away and tells Georgiana that it "shocks" him (260). Soon this shock grows into another obsession. The birthmark is all that Aylmer can think of. It overshadows his love for Georgiana, and it consumes his thoughts: "Aylmer's somber imagination was not long in rendering the birth-mark a frightful object, causing him more trouble and horror than ever Georgiana's beauty, whether of soul or sense, had given him delight." (262) Finally, Aylmer even dreams about removing Georgiana's birthmark. The narrator says, "Until now, he had not been aware of the tyrannizing influence acquired by one idea over his mind and the lengths which he might find in his heart to go, for the sake of giving himself peace" (263). By now, the reader should not have any doubts about Aylmer's obsession. Closer examination of Aylmer's excessive passion for science clearly displays his flawed character to the reader. The motivation behind his scientific experiments and the effects of his science demonstrate his shortcomings. If we examine his motivations, we see how self-centered Aylmer really is. His conceit is clear when he assures Georgiana that he will be able to remove the birthmark: "Doubt not my power … what will be my triumph, when I shall have corrected what Nature left imperfect, in her fairest work! Even Pygmalion, when his sculptured woman assumed life, felt not greater ecstasy than mine will be" (264). He echoes this when he later says to Georgiana, "I even rejoice in this single imperfection, since it will be such rapture to remove it" (267). Both these comments show that Aylmer has forgotten about Georgiana and is only concerned with his own success and power. The critic Judith Fetterley even argues that the story's "subject is finally power" (31). Not surprisingly, Aylmer's desire to remove the birthmark in order to demonstrate his own power ends up affecting his marriage, even before he kills his wife. Georgiana's "self-image derives from internalizing the attitudes toward her of the man or men around her" (Fetterley 32). Although Georgiana at first thinks of the mark as a "charm" (260), she sees that Aylmer is obsessed with the mark. Soon she begins to “shudder at his gaze" (262) because he sees only the birthmark, not her. As a result, she urges him on in his experimentation. Eventually, Aylmer becomes so consumed with his work that he even accuses his wife of mistrusting him. When she enters his laboratory, he cries, "Have you no trust in your husband? … Would you throw the blight of that fatal birth-mark over my labors?" (273). But Aylmer's obsession with the birthmark, not the mark itself, is fatal. His refusal to see Georgiana instead of her birthmark ends in her death. Brenda Wineapple claims that Aylmer is so self-centered that he kills Georgiana "so that in some way he can remain alone, untrammeled, asexual, and free from responsibility" (175). To emphasize that Aylmer's relationship with science is fanatical, Hawthorne uses fire, smoke, and soot to characterize Aylmer's laboratory. When Georgiana first enters the laboratory, the scene reminds the reader of hell: "The first thing that struck her eye was the furnace, that hot and feverish worker, with the intense glow of its fire" (272). Aylmer is "pale as death, anxious, and absorbed" (273). In spite of this imagery, though, Georgiana's final words to her husband are positive, emphasizing what is good about him: "You have aimed loftily!—you have done nobly! Do not repent, that, with so high and pure a feeling, you have rejected the best that earth could offer" (277). Georgiana's words seem to convey the moral of the story, and the narrator echoes them at the end, saying, "Yet, had Aylmer reached a profounder wisdom, he need not thus have flung away the happiness, which would have woven his mortal life of the self-same texture with the celestial" (278). "Profounder wisdom" would have led Aylmer to understand that perfection does not exist on earth. Just as Georgiana loved him for his imperfections, Aylmer should have been content with Georgiana and her birthmark. Instead, Aylmer's obsession with science and obtaining perfection on earth led him to destroy "the best that earth could offer." WORKS CITEDFetterley, Judith. The Resisting Reader: A Feminist Approach to American Fiction. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1978.Hawthorne, Nathaniel. "The Birth-mark." Selected Tales and Sketches. New York: Penguin, 1987. 259–78.Reid, Alfred. "Hawthorne's Humanism: 'The Birthmark' and Sir Kenelm Digby." American Literature 38.3 (1966): 337–51.Wineapple, Brenda. Hawthorne: A Life. New York: Knopf: 2003.
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